Husky Injection Molding System Essay Sample free essay sample

By the late fiftiess. Husky had established a repute as a high-quality shaper of plastic casts. particularly â€Å"thinwall† casts used to do peddling cups and other containers. As demand for the injection-molding machinery rose around the Earth. Husky expanded to Europe in the mid-1960s and established a joint venture in Japan in 1971. A new line of modeling systems. tailored for the production of PET bottle preforms. pulled Husky out of its crisis by the terminal of the seventiess. Net incomes from this country allowed the company to spread out into other merchandise lines and extra states during the 1980s and early 1990s. Competitive Advantage: Firm Features At the steadfast degree. public presentation is determined by value and cost place relation to rivals. Value PositionHusky. as the taking house in the preform niche. has a strong value place in comparing to its rivals as it differentiates itself from rivals by offering series of merchandise inventions such as casts. We will write a custom essay sample on Husky Injection Molding System Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page hot smugglers. robotics. and value-added services. This scheme implies that Husky focuses on increasing the perceived value created for clients. which allows it to bear down a premium monetary value. Similarly. since Husky has 60 % ( estimated ) of the world’s preform manufactured on Husky system. their important market portion allows them increase the barrier of entry and go on to put a high monetary value and gain supranormal net incomes as an oligopoly house. Cost Position On the other manus. its comparative cost place is weaker as they offers specialised machines. casts. hot smugglers. and automatons and non strictly standardised machines like Cincinnati Milacron. Hence. it reduces Husky’s ability to vie entirely on monetary value. Business Scheme: Focused Differentiation Strategy Husky follows a distinction scheme. The end of a generic distinction scheme is to add alone characteristics that will increase the sensed value of goods and services in the heads of the consumers so they are willing to pay a higher monetary value while maintaining cost at the same or similar degrees. Furthermore. Husky has a focussed distinction scheme since it focuses on a narrow and niche merchandises. which include medium-tonnage machines. PET. preform casts and hot smugglers ( as shown in Exhibit 2 ) . In this instance. Husky seeks to make higher value for clients than the value that rivals create. through the three value drivers. Merchandise Features: Husky’s employs the latest tools and engineering and their systems are known for their velocity. huskiness. rosin use. and lastingness. For case. Husky preform system might do a set of PET preforms for sodium carbonate bottles with a rhythm clip 10-15 % shorter than a competitor’s system. Therefore. Husky’s cli ents have a higher willingness to pay a premium monetary value for this higher quality merchandise. Gross saless and service: Husky sold entirely via its internal gross revenues force and gave general directors in each part duty for both the local gross revenues force and the local service technicians. Furthermore. Husky invested to a great extent in constructing Technical Centers in cardinal location to supply local proficient support and preparation. In add-on. Husky had deployed a system designed to transport trim parts to any location rapidly. Since a machine dislocation could hold a processor’s operations. clients cared a great trade for speedy services. Husky’s planetary attack to gross revenues and services. strong record on after-sales service and care and decentralized decision-making will therefore increase the sensed value of Husky’s merchandise or service offerings by concentrating on client service and value added services. Therefore. Husky’s clients will hold a higher willingness to pay a premium monetary value with the higher valued service. Customization: Husky’s gross revenues were in the medium-tonnage machines. most dedicated to the PET preform and thinwall. They provided a comprehensive and incorporate merchandise line for the terminal uses it served and made specialized machines. casts. hot smugglers. and automatons. As such. customization adds value to Husky’s merchandise. leting them to put a premium monetary value. While concentrating their attending on adding value to the merchandise through alone characteristics that respond to client penchant. client services during and after the sale. will increase costs. clients will be willing to pay a premium monetary value for the merchandise or service that satisfies their demands and penchants. The above three value drivers besides contributed in constructing up client trueness since Husky specifically cater to each terminal user demands. Due to complex buying procedure for the machines and cast. there is high exchanging cost incurred and therefore taking to low dickering power of the consumers. A elaborate computation demoing the apathetic monetary value of $ 2. 056. 024 between a Husky system and a competitor’s system. whereby the incremental value ( $ 1. 056. 024 ) transcending the incremental cost ( $ 200. 000 ) can be found at the terminal of the study. Current Market Situation In recent old ages. demand for Husky systems was weak in the PET part of the market and this will hold a great impact on the growing of the house since 60 % of the world’s preform was manufactured on Husky systems. The shapers of PET rosin appeared to hold underestimated resin demand by a broad border. They had added excessively small capacity. and PET monetary values had soared due to shortage of supply ( doing a displacement of the supply curve to the left and driving up monetary values of PET ) . Furthermore. the deficit of rosin led to a halted in processors enlargement programs for merchandises made with PET and put orders for new equipment on clasp. The consequence is a autumn in the demand and supply in Husky’s merchandises. therefore driving monetary values even higher. The increased in monetary value will pull more rivals to come in the market and within 2-3 old ages. market forces will force the demand and supply to market equilibrium. work outing the current issue. Analysis of Rivals Despite being portion of an oligopoly. Husky has to be invariably cognizant of its rivals in the machine and cast market. A series of challengers launched new merchandises in Husky’s nucleus market sections. Though these rivals do non hold the specialised expertness that Husky has developed. they focus on cost leading scheme by offering merchandises at a lower cost which helps them derive an advantage over clients who willing to buy less expensive engineering. For case. Cincinnati Milacron offered a wide line of standardised machines. leting it to tap economic sciences of graduated table and made them the lowest-cost U. S. manufacturer of these machines. However. consumers who are in hunt of customized machines for more specific demands would still prefer Husky. In recent old ages. the figure of close rivals who besides embarked on distinction scheme additions and they are viz. Netstal. Engel. Electra Form and R A ; D Tool A ; Engineering. These rivals set monetary values ap proximately 10-20 % below Husky. endangering the competitory advantage of Husky throughout these old ages. If Husky continues with their current scheme. the intense entry of close replacements will led to a reduced in Husky’s market portion and lower consumer’s willingness to buy their merchandise and services. Recommendations In response to both altering external and internal factors. Husky has to reexamine on their scheme to fine-tune to suit the altering environment. Although increased value creative activity is a defining characteristic of a distinction scheme. Husky should non be self-satisfied. To maintain up with the growing of demand for PET preform and close replacements in the market. an integrating scheme is recommended. First. Husky can see take downing the houses cost per unit ( production cost ) . Second. they can go on to add particular characteristics to increase sensed value. The consequence is an addition in the difference between value creative activity and cost. and therefore on the magnitude of economic value created. With Husky extremely automated. capital-intensive installations. they are able to take advantage of economic systems of graduated table as the cost per unit reduces with per addition in end product. This allows Husky to bring forth their merchandises at a lower cost and the ability to put lower monetary values compared to its rival and yet additions important economic value. The stigmatization. together with a lower monetary value will win consumers over and ensue in an addition in the demand for Husky merchandise and services. Furthermore. Husky can increase their sensed value with invention by bettering their merchandise and procedure. or alteration of bing 1s. For case. they can pass more on Research and Development to better on the public presentation of a Husky preform system by bring forthing the bottles with a shorter rhythm clip. This can hike the sensed value of the merchandise and retain consumers who are contemplating to exchange to a close replacement of Husky. Detailed Calculation of Indifferent Price Since the approximative machine monetary value is $ 1. 2million and $ 1million severally for Husky and their major rival. the incremental cost for consumer on 1 machine is $ 0. 2million. From exhibit 6. the fringy value for consumer on 1 machine is the add-on of electrical cost nest eggs. salvaging in decreased floor infinite and the extra net income generated by Husky PET preform versus Major rival. From computation based on Exhibit 6. the entire merchandises produced per twelvemonth is 135. 240. 923 and 101. 022. 102 for Husky and other Major rival severally.

youth

Tobacco Ads Target Youth Everyday 3,000 children start smoking, most them between the ages of 10 and 18. These kids account for 90 percent of all new smokers. In fact, 90 percent of all adult smokers said that they first lit up as teenagers (Roberts). These statistics clearly show that young people are the prime target in the tobacco wars. The cigarette manufacturers may deny it, but advertising and promotion play a vital part in making these facts a reality (Roberts). The kings of these media ploys are Marlboro and Camel. Marlboro uses a fictional western character called The Marlboro Man, while Camel uses Joe Camel, a high-rolling, swinging cartoon character. Joe Camel, the "smooth character" from R.J. Reynolds, who is shown as a dromedary with complete style has been attacked by many Tobacco-Free Kids organizations as a major influence on the children of America. Dr. Lonnie Bristow, AMA (American Medical Association) spokesman, remarks that "to kids, cute cartoon characters mean that the product is harmless, but cigarettes are not harmless. They have to know that their ads are influencing the youth under 18 to begin smoking"(Breo). Researchers at the Medical College of Georgia report that almost as many 6-year olds recognize Joe Camel as know Mickey Mouse (Breo). That is very shocking information for any parent to hear. The industry denies that these symbols target people under 21 and claim that their advertising goal is simply to promote brand switching and loyalty. Many people disagree with this statement such as Illinois Rep. Richard Durbin who states " If we can reduce the number of young smokers, the tobacco companies will be in trouble and they know it "(Roberts). So what do the tobacco companies do to keep their industry alive and well? Seemingly, they go toward a market that is not fully aware of the harm that cigarettes are capable of. U.S. News recently featured ... youth Free Essays on Tobacco/youth Tobacco Ads Target Youth Everyday 3,000 children start smoking, most them between the ages of 10 and 18. These kids account for 90 percent of all new smokers. In fact, 90 percent of all adult smokers said that they first lit up as teenagers (Roberts). These statistics clearly show that young people are the prime target in the tobacco wars. The cigarette manufacturers may deny it, but advertising and promotion play a vital part in making these facts a reality (Roberts). The kings of these media ploys are Marlboro and Camel. Marlboro uses a fictional western character called The Marlboro Man, while Camel uses Joe Camel, a high-rolling, swinging cartoon character. Joe Camel, the "smooth character" from R.J. Reynolds, who is shown as a dromedary with complete style has been attacked by many Tobacco-Free Kids organizations as a major influence on the children of America. Dr. Lonnie Bristow, AMA (American Medical Association) spokesman, remarks that "to kids, cute cartoon characters mean that the product is harmless, but cigarettes are not harmless. They have to know that their ads are influencing the youth under 18 to begin smoking"(Breo). Researchers at the Medical College of Georgia report that almost as many 6-year olds recognize Joe Camel as know Mickey Mouse (Breo). That is very shocking information for any parent to hear. The industry denies that these symbols target people under 21 and claim that their advertising goal is simply to promote brand switching and loyalty. Many people disagree with this statement such as Illinois Rep. Richard Durbin who states " If we can reduce the number of young smokers, the tobacco companies will be in trouble and they know it "(Roberts). So what do the tobacco companies do to keep their industry alive and well? Seemingly, they go toward a market that is not fully aware of the harm that cigarettes are capable of. U.S. News recently featured ...

At Risk Students- Students at risk of school failure with an emphasis Research Paper

At Risk Students- Students at risk of school failure with an emphasis on students placed in foster care - Research Paper Example Such problems necessitate the removal of a child from their home for the purposes of their emotional and physical safety. At any given time, approximately 10,000 children are under foster care, 35% being in the care of their relatives. . How students in foster care become at risk students There are many factors that contribute to students placed in foster care becoming at risk students. These include the frequent school moves which result to disruption of their educational progress. This is mainly because such children are normally forced to leave their communities and schools on entering into foster care due to limited residential resources within the present district of the child. Such transfers force these children to join other students in their new schools despite the disparity in syllabus coverage between the two schools. According to Riley (1986), the impact of school transfers is great because most of such transfers take place mid of the school year and the mobility rates are higher for those entering into foster care for the first time. By the time some of these students go through the curriculum, they could have change schools up to five times. According to a 1996 study done in Chicago Public Schools, students who had changed schools for about four or more times had lost about a year of educational growth by their 6th year. If such student’s do not receive enough attention to orient them to the new school and remedial services to catch up with the rest, they end up lagging behind the rest all the academic years (Pecora et al, 2003). Some of the students under foster care attend to medical appointments or court cases. Such activities usually take the student out of school and could even result to emotional upheaval (Pecora et al, 2003). This means that the student will always have class work or content gaps due to frequent unavoidable absenteeism. This makes these students become at risk students because they may never cope successfully with the rest of the class leading to a general low performance. This causes the student to loose self-confidence leading to a continuation of the trend. Green (1986) notes that students placed under foster care have higher rates of inappropriate behavior like truancy, drug addiction or impulsive behavior. This could be due to lack of proper and continuous monitoring because social workers and care givers may change several times during the stay of a child in foster care. This makes their margin of suspended and/or expelled students wider compared to that of students who are not out of home. A combination of such suspensions and/or expulsions, and inappropriate behavior results to high school failure and drop out rates among them students placed under foster care. Help and support to at risk students At risk students need a lot of help and support from parents, teachers and counselors in order to enhance their educational levels and achievements. As noted earlier, these students experience more failure than the rest of the class and hence they fall behind their peers. This causes them to have low self-esteem which negatively affects their attitude towards education and to underestimate their potentialities. Beveridge (2010) states that the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), supports educational reforms that are standards-based. This is based on a belief that establishment of goals and setting of high standards can improve the educational outcomes

Accounting decision making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Accounting decision making - Essay Example In addition, an explanation to support the variation in the contribution margin of the five services is provided and possible resource constraints faced by the firm is provided. Firms adopt different dividend policies which are in line with their goals. Dividend payment is preferred by shareholders since that is their source of reward for contributing equity capital. The article states that dividend payment is simply a transfer of value within the firm. That is, the movement of value already owned by the shareholders to shareholders. Therefore, there is no level of dividend payment that contributes to value creation. The statement is true for the reason that dividend payment does not increase the firm’s ability to increase the economic benefits. In other words, a firm cannot increase its cash flow generating ability by paying dividends. However, the payment of cash dividends has a positive impact on the value of a firm (market value). The market value of a firm (market capitalization) is determined by multiplying the outstanding shares of a firm with the current share price. It has been observed that the payment of cash dividends by firms increases the market value of companies. The increase is brought about as follows: when a firm pays cash dividends, more shareholders, who prefer certain payments, are attracted (Frankfurter, Wood & Wansley, 2003, pp. 91). The demand of shares of that company increases, thus increasing the share price. Consequently, the market value of the firm increases. There are two theories of dividend payment which supports the influence of cash dividend on the market value of the firm. That is, the bird-in-hand theory and information signalling dividend payment theory (Hunting & Paulsen 2013). The bird-in-hand, dividend payment theory states that stockholders prefer certainty due to their aversion towards risk. Dividend payments are more assured as compared

Islamic Politics and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Islamic Politics and Culture - Essay Example From the Sunnis point of view, the immediate caliphs (four in number), were the rightful heirs of Mohammad and they are the one recognized as the leaders of Muslims (Lyon 86). This therefore implies that the Sunnis believed that authority is dictated from the immediate descendants of Prophet Mohammad. Shiites, on the other hand, believe that Prophet Mohammad’s son in law, Ali, was the rightful heir of the Islamic throne ((Lyon 86)). This therefore implies that Shia only recognized Ali as the legitimate successors of Prophet Mohammed. Therefore, even though both of these sects believed in Mohammad as their initial leader, upon his death, there arose differences on who was rightfully supposed to inherit his throne. Mostly, stand out differences between these two sects is not usually religious but political. According to Sigh, Shiites believed that their leader was pure and blameless by nature, they believed that they were absolutely sinless and that their authority is out of question since it is given directly from Allah (26). Therefore, Shia Muslims often look at the Imams as saints and perform excursions to their tombs and shrines in the anticipation of divine intervention. Sunni Muslims on the other hand pledge that there is no foundation in Islam for a heritable advantaged class of spiritual leaders, and there is certainly no base for the honor or intercession of saints. Sunni Muslims maintain that the headship of the community is not a patrimony, but an earned trust that could be assigned or taken away by the Islamic people. Equally important, the Islamic religion entitles both the Sunni and Shiite are to a daily organized prayers at a specific time. However, these two sects usually practice certain rituals in different ways. Sacred practices also vary in terms of the scriptures that are conventional to them. While Shiites generally only recognize hadith attributable to Muhammads direct lineage or to descendants of Ali, Sunni on the contrary take a

Theories on Discourse and Changes in Ideology

Theories on Discourse and Changes in Ideology Language, that makes us the Crown of Creatures, empowers us with an expressive medium which we exploit to communicate, understand, interpret, negate, acknowledge, appreciate, influence, persuade, dominate, control, etc. Metaphorically speaking, language helps us to caress and comfort our feelings, excite and thrill our spirit, rattle our nerves, kill our desire, and so on. Language is a variegated phenomenon. It can emotionally move and affect us as powerfully as physical actions. This is the power of language. 1.1 What is Discourse? The term discourse has been derived from French word discours meaning talk. In linguistics, discourse is a sequence of utterances. Grammarians define discourse as large pieces of speech and writing: stretches of language longer than a sentence. Language is used to mean something and to do something, and this meaning and doing is determined by the context of its usage. As discourse is dialogic in nature, the things which make it different from ordinary language use are context, creation, reception and interpretation. It should not be confused with either of the Chomskys or Saussures categories. It is neither performance or parole which is concerned with language in its actual utterances, nor competence or languewhere language is a code system and a system of communicative conventions. Although it contains both the elements, it goes beyond the distinction of performance or parole and competence or langue; it is the study of language use. If language is speech act and social behavior, discourse is a form of social practice. Foucault defines discourse as ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such knowledges and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and producing meaning. They constitute the nature of the body, unconscious and conscious mind and emotional life of the subjects they seek to govern. (Weedon, 1987) a form of power that circulates in the social field and can attach to strategies of domination as well as those of resistance. (Diamond Quinby, 1988) In other words, discourse is a string of utterances concerned with the production of meaning. Discourse is a socially organized way of speaking. According to Foucault, discourse constructs the topic. It governs what can and cannot be said about the topic. Apart from governing the topic, it is also used to influence people to change ideas into practice (be it personal or others ideas), and to regulate the conduct of others. As discourse is concerned with the production of meaning, the utterances have a relation to common sense assumptions. Cultural hegemony is maintained through common sense assumptions which become universal ideologies through language or in other words discourse. Language exerts hidden power, like a moon on the tides. (Rita Mae Brown, Starting from Scratch, 1998) 1.2 What is Ideology? Ideologies are those ideas, values, attitudes, and (general or cultural) ways of thinking that shape our belief systems and mind sets about what is /isnt correct, and how it must be. Ideologies, be they religious or political or social, maintain power structures and social hierarchies and remain dominant and prevalent in the society through rhetorical discourse or hidden power in discourse. The main purpose of ideology is not only to change the existing structures, but also to maintain already existing set of ideals. Ideas, beliefs, and attitudes which maintain status quo become dominant or prevalent ideologies of the society. These ideologies are so powerful that they ignore and sideline those ideas which are against its very existence through a normative thought process and politics of the language. Ideologies when become shared experiences start making sense. People start making sense of their lives while observing them. In other words, they are no more false beliefs and ideas, rather a true and lived experience. THEORIES ON DISCOURSE IDEOLOGY The social theory has contributed in many ways to explore the role of language in exercising, maintaining and changing power. Firstly, the work in the theory of ideology talks about ideology as a mechanism of power without using coercive means and language as a locus of ideology which is significant in exercising power. Secondly, Michel Foucaults work ascribes central role to discourse in the development of power structures of forms. Thirdly, Jurgen Habermas theory of communicative action which challenges Marxist focus on economics or alienated labor- is considered as the sole determining factor of oppression. He argues that key to liberation is rather to be found in language and communication between people. 2.1 Marx and Ideology Karl Max, a social thinker of 19th century, talked of ideology in terms of an instrument of social production. He gave economic base and superstructure model of society, where base denotes the relation of production and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology. Base shapes the superstructure of any society, while the superstructure maintains and legitimates the base. According to Marx, bourgeoisie create and reinforce particular ways of thinking, in other words, particular ideology which in turn reinforce the structure of the society, thus maintaining status quo and existing hierarchies of status and power. Fig. 1: Marxs Base Superstructure Model of Society According to Karl Marx, social ideologies not only cause status quo or hegemony in the society, but also a conditioning where false consciousness created by the ruling class is justified. This conditioning makes us think that the way our society operates is for the best, and lower class justifies its own lower position in society. Michel Foucault in The Order of Discourse In The Order of Discourse, Foucault argues that the discourse is controlled by certain functions, actions and rules. In particular, certain topics are prohibited and who speaks is limited. Reason is valued and madness is ignored. It is also controlled by what we choose to comment on and by the will to truth. [T]he highest truth no longer resided in what discourse was or did, but in what is said: a day came when truth was displaced by from the ritualized, efficacious, and just act of enunciation, towards the utterance itself, its meaning, its form, its object, its relation to its reference. (1462) In every society, the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its chance events, to evade its ponderous, formidable materiality (p.210). Foucault also talks about procedures of exclusion and procedures of inclusion. He states that prohibition of including or discussing certain topics very soon reveal [discourses] link with desire and with power (p.211). At another place he says that discourse is not simply that which translates struggles or systems of domination, but is the thing for which and by which there is struggle; discourse is the power which is to be seized (p.211). In Weedons (1987) in interpretation of Foucault is: A dynamic of control between discourses and the subjects, constituted by discourses, who are their agents. Power is exercised within discourses in the ways in which they constitute and govern individual subjects. Foucaults focus is upon questions of how some discourses have shaped and created meaning systems that have gained the status and currency of truth, and dominate how we define and organize both ourselves and our social world, whilst other alternative discourses are marginalised and subjugated, yet potentially offer sites where hegemonic practices can be contested, challenged and resisted. Foucault developed the concept of the discursive field as part of his attempt to understand the relationship between language, social institutions, subjectivity and power. Discursive fields, such as the law or the family, contain a number of competing and contradictory discourses with varying degrees of power to give meaning to and organize social institutions and processes. They also offer a range of modes of subjectivity (Weedon, 1987). It follows then that, if relations of power are dispersed and fragmented throughout the social field, so must resistance to power be (Diamond Quinby, 1988). Foucault argues though, in The Order of Discourse, that the will to truth is the major system of exclusion that forges discourse and which tends to exert a sort of pressure and something like a power of constraint on other discourses, and goes on further to ask the question what is at stake in the will to truth, in the will to utter this true discourse, if not desire and power? (1970, cited in Shapiro 1984, p. 113-4). Thus, there are both discourses that constrain the production of knowledge, dissent and difference and some that enable new knowledges and difference(s). The questions that arise within this framework, are to do with how some discourses maintain their authority, how some voices get heard whilst others are silenced, who benefits and how that is, questions addressing issues of power/ empowerment/ disempowerment. 2.3 Louis Althussers view of Ideology Louis Althusser builds on the work of Jacques Lacan to understand the way ideology functions in society. He thus moves away from the earlier Marxist understanding of ideology. In the earlier model, ideology was believed to create what was termed false consciousness, a false understanding of the way the world functioned (for example, the suppression of the fact that the products we purchase on the open market are, in fact, the result of the exploitation of laborers). Althusser revised Marxs view of ideology, which he described as: thought as an imaginary construction whose status is exactly like the theoretical status of the dream among writers before Freud. He saw human individuals being constituted as subjects through ideology. Consciousness and agency are experienced, but are the products of ideology speaking through the subject. Above all, ideology is an imaginary construction that represents the real world. However, it is so real to us that we never question it. Althusser posits a series of hypotheses that he explores to clarify his understanding of ideology: Ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence (Lenin 109). The traditional way of thinking of ideology led Marxists to show how ideologies are false by pointing to the real world hidden by ideology (for example, the real economic base for ideology). According to Althusser, by contrast, ideology does not reflect the real world but represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to the real world; the thing ideology (mis)represents is itself already at one remove from the real. In this, Althusser follows the Lacanian understanding of the imaginary order, which is itself at one step removed from the Lacanian Real. In other words, we are always within ideology because of our reliance on language to establish our reality; different ideologies are but different representations of our social and imaginary reality not a representation of the Real itself. Ideology has a material existence (Lenin 112). Althusser contends that ideology has a material existence because an ideology always exists in an apparatus, and its practice, or practices (Lenin 112). Ideology always manifests itself through actions, which are inserted into practices (Lenin 114), for example, rituals, conventional behavior, and so on. It is our performance of our relation to others and to social institutions that continually instantiates us as subjects. Judith Butlers understanding of performativity could be said to be strongly influenced by this way of thinking about ideology. all ideology hails or interpellates concrete individuals as concrete subjects (Lenin 115). According to Althusser, the main purpose of ideology is in constituting concrete individuals as subjects (Lenin 116). So pervasive is ideology in its constitution of subjects that it forms our very reality and thus appears to us as true or obvious. Althusser gives the example of the hello on a street: the rituals of ideological recognition [] guarantee for us that we are indeed concrete, individual, distinguishable and (naturally) irreplaceable subjects (Lenin 117). Through interpellation, individuals are turned into subjects (which are always ideological). Althussers example is the hail from a police officer: Hey, you there!' (Lenin 118): Assuming that the theoretical scene I have imagined takes place in the street, the hailed individual will turn round. By this mere one-hundred-and-eighty-degree physical conversion, he becomes a subject (Lenin 118). The very fact that we do not recognize this interaction as ideological speaks to the power of ideology: what thus seems to take place outside ideology (to be precise, in the street), in reality takes place in ideology [.] That is why those who are in ideology believe themselves by definition outside ideology: one of the effects of ideology is the practical denegation of the ideological character of ideology by ideology: ideology never says, I am ideological. (Lenin 118) individuals are always-already subjects (Lenin 119). Although he presents his example of interpellation in a temporal form (I am interpellated and thus I become a subject, I enter ideology), Althusser makes it clear that the becoming-subject happens even before we are born. This proposition might seem paradoxical (Lenin 119), Althusser admits; nevertheless, That an individual is always-already a subject, even before he is born, is [] the plain reality, accessible to everyone and not a paradox at all (Lenin 119). Even before the child is born, it is certain in advance that it will bear its Fathers Name, and will therefore have an identity and be irreplaceable. Before its birth, the child is therefore always-already a subject, appointed as a subject in and by the specific familial ideological configuration in which it is expected once it has been conceived (Lenin119). Althusser thus once again invokes Lacans ideas, in this case Lacans understanding of the Name-of-the-Father. Most subjects accept their ideological self-constitution as reality or nature and thus rarely run afoul of the repressive State apparatus, which is designed to punish anyone who rejects the dominant ideology. Hegemony is thus reliant less on such repressive State apparatuses as the police than it is on those Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) by which ideology is inculcated in all subjects. (See the next module for an explanation of ISAs.) As Althusser puts it, the individual is interpellated as a (free) subject in order that he shall submit freely to the commandments of the Subject, i.e. in order that he shall (freely) accept his subjection, i.e. in order that he shall make the gestures and actions of his subjection all by himself' (Lenin 123). Louis Althussers ISA Althusser proposed a materialistic conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are true. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told (but is suggested). For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. What is ultimately important for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the minds of human individuals, but rather the material institutions, rituals and discourses that produce these beliefs. Althusser identified the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) as the method by which organizations propagate ideology primarily. Violence or threat of violence is secondary. ISAs for Althusser were religious, educational, family, cultural institutions. This is in contrast to the Repressive State Apparatus (RSA), by which compliance can be forced and includes the army, police, government, prisons. Force or threat of force is primary, while ideology is secondary. For example, arrest imprisonment, corporal punishment, etc. 2.4 Discourse as Social Practice Social relations of power and domination are sustained through ideology. To Fairclough, ideologies construct realities which give meaning to discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Hence the discursive practices, loaded with ideologies not only produce, but also reproduce or transform social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief. 2.4.1 Fairclough and Ideology: There are two ways of exercising power: through coercion and through consent. According to Fairclough, Ideology is the key mechanism of rule by consent, and discourse is a favored vehicle of ideology. It functions to establish, sustain or change domination or power relations in the society. For Fairclough, ideologies are constructions of reality which are built into various dimensions of the forms and meanings of discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Through being ideologically invested, discourse is a mode of producing, reproducing or transforming social identities, social relations, and systems of knowledge and belief. Fairclough (1992) makes three claims about ideology, based in part on the French Marxist philosopher, Althusser: Ideology has a material basis in the social practices of institutions. As a form of social practice, discourse practices are material forms of ideology. Ideology interpellates subjects. It works by constituting people as subjects within the framework of ideology. Patriarchal ideology interpellates individuals as more powerful men or less powerful women. Racist ideology interpellates groups as ourselves and the Other (see Hall 1997 The Spectacle of the Other). Ideology operates through powerful ideological state apparatuses. Althusser contrasts what he terms the repressive agencies of the police, the military, prisons and the courts, with the ideological state apparatuses of the mass media, education and popular culture. In Faircloughs theory, all of these give rise to institutional and societal orders of discourse (the societal order of discourse is a condensation of the institutional orders of discourse). 2.4.2 Fairclough and Discourse Discourse involves two kinds of social conditions: social conditions of production and social conditions of interpretation. These social conditions are naturalized through the ideological functioning of the practices of dominant class. Fairclough describes underlying conventions of discourse which in fact determines discourse in terms of what Foucault refers to as orders of discourse. To Fairclough, these orders of discourse embody particular ideologies. Fairclough refers to the three dimensions of discourse. They are discursive practice (discourse practice), social practice (socio-cultural practice), and text. Social practice includes discourse which not only reflects reality, but also effect social structures which play active role in social change. Different subject positions determine different discoursal rights and obligations of individuals. Discourse practice refers to the production and reception of messages. Participants indulged in discourse construct their social identities and relations by knowing how to act in certain situations. For this participants draw on what Fairclough refers to as members resources (MR). This include internalized knowledge of social structure and social practices; knowledge about production and interpretation of discourse types; and detailed knowledge of particular linguistics and textual structuring devices. Text is the record of a communicative event. It can be written, spoken or visual. While analyzing text in terms of ideologies embedded in it, two things are very important: firstly, representation of ideological facts and beliefs and construction of participant identities (writer and reader), and secondly, textual function which frames the message. 3.How Ideologies are Embedded in Language Language produces, maintains and changes social relations of power. It also contributes to the domination of some people by others. Power is exercised through language in conversations and other forms of text or talk. When people interact linguistically, the conventional talk embodies common sense assumptions where power structures are treated as legitimized. According to Fairclough, these assumptions are ideologies which are closely linked to power and language. Power relations determine the conventional ideological assumptions, which in turn legitimize existing social relations and unequal power. Language, a social behavior, relies on common sense assumptions. The exercise of power in modern society is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through the ideological working of the language. (Fairclough, 1989) Further he says, Ideology is the prime means of manufacturing consent. 3.1 Memory Resources Ideological assumptions are mere common sense assumptions, and contribute to sustain existing power relations. To Fairclough, these common sense assumptions are memory resources (MR). when sender encodes a message, the receiver not only decodes it, but also interpret it by comparing and contrasting features of utterances with representations stored in long term memory. Fairclough refers to these prototypes as member resources: grammatical forms, structures, shapes of words, sequence of events, systems of meaning, sounds, etc. Interaction between interpreted utterance and MR results in comprehension. According to Fairclough, understanding how language, power, and ideology are interrelated requires attention to the processes of production and comprehension because MR/ representations/ prototypes are socially determined and ideologically shaped. They are so automatic, natural, legitimate and common sense assumptions that they remain in disguise. The sociologist Harold Garfinkel, describes the familiar common sense world of everyday life as a world which is built entirely upon assumptions and expectations which control both the action of members of society and their interpretation of the action of others. Such assumptions and expectations are implicit, back grounded, taken for granted, not things that people are consciously aware of and rarely explicit. Effectiveness of ideology depends to a considerable degree on it being merged with this common sense background to discourse and other forms of social action. 3.2 Language Ideologies in Text Language ideologies are not just ways of explaining language and language use for economic reasons, but are the language ideas of the dominant groups in society. They may equally be inter-changed with discourses about language. Ideologies are not untrue indeed, like stereotypes, there may be a degree of truth in them. Ideology is to study its effects on discourse forms and meanings and how discursive structures may in turn contribute to the formation and transformation of ideologies. However, ideologies are also at play when language users engage in the ongoing construction of context as subjective, as well as group sensitive, interpretations of social situations. While talking about ideologies embedded in text, we can say that this genre of discourse is a level of language use which is super-ordinate to sentences and texts. Text is not something having a beginning and an end. It involves exchange of meanings. Text are created by speakers and writers who share societys beliefs concerning what is right and what is wrong or about the way things should be for the best in society. When they want to maintain their belief systems or ideologies, they take the help of language. These ideologies remain implicit in the text as they seem natural or common sense. The ideologically loaded language of the text grants it the ideological power. Such langue has judgmental value and meaning as well. Many ideologically loaded words have their judgemental value because their meaning is rational. They exist as binary pairs: master/mistress, housewife/working mother, middle class/working class, freedom fighter/terrorist, hero/coward, etc. Some linguists maintain th at all language all meaning is an ideological construct. Following are few texts which are all related to social problems for one and social beliefs for the other. In other words, they contain social ideologies which are neutralized in the society. CONCLUSION Long-range social changes are driven by changes in ideology. But at a local level, change in actual discourse practices can be cumulative in effect. Both discourse and ideology are based on the relationship between power and knowledge. We tend to think of knowledge as empowering ourselves (Sarup, 1993). Besides this, knowledge is the ability to exercise power over others. So, power is both positive (productive in creating identities), and negative (destroy identities). In productive power, one is not reduced to one dimension as in ideologies and power is not held by one person or group for good. Rather, it exists as a circuit, something which is exercised by everyone in different situations. As where there is power there is always resistance, power can be challenged. We might not say certain things in certain situations, but by breaking the rules, we can re-define the limits of discourse. Hence, redefining the limits of discourse is something productive about power.

Peyronies Disease :: essays research papers

Peyronie's disease What is Peyronie's disease? Peyronie's disease is a disorder affecting the penis that can cause:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a lump within the shaft of the penis  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pain in the shaft of the penis  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  abnormal angulation of the erect penis ('bent' penis). Not all of these features are necessarily present, but, typically, a man would first notice a tender lump in the penis, which might later be followed by bending of the penis when erect, sometimes at very odd angles. The flaccid penis is not usually deformed. It is important to remember that a degree of upward (towards the head) angulation of the erect penis is quite normal and not a feature of Peyronie's disease. Good advice Noticing a lump in the penis can be a frightening experience. Men are often concerned that they have developed a cancer. Cancer within the penile shaft is very rare indeed, while Peyronie's disease is by far the most common cause of such lumps. If you find a lump, it is important to seek prompt medical advice, but you should not be too fearful that a serious cause will be found What causes Peyronie's disease? The penis consists of basically three cylinders, covered by several sheaths of tissue and, finally, by skin. A pair of corpora cavernosa form the erectile tissue that becomes engorged with blood during erection, acting like the inner tube of a tyre. They are surrounded by the tunica albuginea, a tough, inelastic, fibrous sheath, which might be compared with the tyre itself. When the penis becomes erect, the inner tubes (corpora cavernosa) inflate, filling the space within the tyre (tunica albugenia), making it more rigid. In Peyronie's disease, tough, fibrous plaques spontaneously appear within the tunica albugenia, and are felt as tender lumps. When the penis becomes erect, it inflates unevenly and tends to bend around the plaque, causing the characteristic deformed appearance of Peyronie's disease. Experts are not certain why some men get Peyronie's disease and others do not. Several factors might be involved, including:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  genetics: occasionally the disease has a tendency to run in certain families (inherited or genetic predisposition), but this is not common.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  injury: Peyronie's disease is more common after injury to the penis, such as penile fracture or forceful bending of the erect penis. It also occurs more frequently in men that give injections into the penis for the treatment of erectile dysfunction (impotence).  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  circulatory disorders: more men with Peyronie's disease seem to be affected by high blood pressure and hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), so these conditions might possibly be involved in its development.