10 Writing Ideas Concerning Health

All Schools Should Teach Sex Education Programs - 962 Words

All Schools Should Teach Sex Education Programs Young children have curious minds to many things, and even though they are told â€Å"no† or to â€Å"stay away†, they tend to act on that curiosity. This also applies to sex. Kids see it on the television, hear it in music, see it on the Internet and start asking about it. Some parents believe that teaching a Sex Education program should just consist of abstinence and nothing more, due to the belief that exposing young children to sexual activity would encourage them engage in sex, however, this clearly is not the case. Research has proven that Sex Ed. Programs that include not only abstinence, but many other factors that consist with sex have reduced the rate of young children conceiving children and contracting a Sexual Transmitted Disease (STD). Many parents get uncomfortable when their children mention sex to them, and when they do, they give them the â€Å"birds and the bees† speech in hopes it will educate their child. And schools? Schools lecture about abstinence, abroad spectrum of protected sex, and STD’s. But nothing much about the understanding of SEX, how it could occur, knowing how to say no, and being comfortable about their sexuality. This is why there should be a federal law for schools to teach Sex Education as early as fifth grade to high school. Having a Sex Education class will analyze the depths of Sex Ed. programs, educate children on STDs, inform them of the possible result after sexual intercourse, and give them theShow MoreRelatedSex Education in Schools657 Words   |  3 PagesSex Education in Schools Nineteen-fifty five marked the debut of sex education programs in schools in the United States. Along the years, many have argued whether or not sex education should be taught in schools. Many believe that the education of sex encourages students to engage in sexual activities which lead to a higher number of pregnancies and sexual transmitted diseases (STD’s).The U.S. is the leading country in teen pregnancies and STD’s As the number of unplanned pregnancies and sexuallyRead MoreShould All Schools Adopt More Sex Education?1748 Words   |  7 Pagescan teach the students about teen pregnancy and reduce these statistics However these classes have a lot of potential because they can teach the students things like reducing teen pregnancy ,Reduced disease like HIV/AIDS, Understanding that it’s a struggle having a kid while still being in school,and lastly debunking myths sexual references . Should all schools adopt more sex education classes in schools ? Schoo ls are reconsidering of adopting more sex educational classes in all schools mostlyRead MoreShould Sex Education Be Taught?1553 Words   |  7 Pagesproper education they need so they are aware and are able to protect themselves. The way sex education should be taught is debated among parents, educators, religious groups, and society. Some people believe in abstinence only curriculum while others believe a comprehensive curriculum is more effective. Values, beliefs, and funds can affect how students are being taught. It is important that we pick a curriculum that works best for the students. Sex education can vary in what they teach to theRead MoreBirth Control in Public Schools?634 Words   |  3 PagesShould public school be forced to teach birth control as a part of their curriculum or do people think that this will provoke more teens to start being sexually active? If teachers are forced to teach birth control in their curriculum people believe that this might lead to the encouragement of more teens to start having sex. Public schools should teach birth control as a class because if teens are being sexually active then they should be informed how to be safe and use birth control properly whenRead MoreAbstinence Should Not Teach Students Safe Sex Practices1441 Words   |  6 Pagesfact, there is no doubt that sex education is important. However, schools are teaching more on the abstinence spectrum. Preaching abstinence does not teach students safe-sex practices or a clear understanding of contraception. Abstinence-only programs have the best intentions, however they are flawed due to a biased perspective. In the year of 1996, the United States government passed a bill that funded states who offered abstinence-only programming in public schools. Ever since the passing of theRead MoreSexual Education And Sex Ed1697 Words   |  7 PagesSexual education (sex ed) in public schools has long been a controversial and debated topic in society. There are several questions when it comes to approaching sex ed in schools. These questions include: appropriate age for introducing sex ed; should sex ed be mandatory or optional; and whether sex ed programs should be comprehensive or abstinence-based. Sex ed is a necessary subject to teach in schools. It should be appropriate to the grade level and taught in a knowledgeable, unbiased manner.Read More Sex Education Essay1112 Words   |  5 PagesSex Education Two drastic Emergency Room cases were handled in 1998 at Mary Washington Hospital. Concerned mothers brought their 12 year old daughters into the hospital thinking they were suffering from severe stomach pain or even appendicitis†¦both girls were actually in labor (Abstinence, 2002). The United States has the highest teen pregnancy, birth, and abortion rates in the Western world (Planned Parenthood, 2003). Are teens getting enough knowledge on sex and how to prevent STDs and unwantedRead MoreEssay on Sex Education in Schools1677 Words   |  7 Pagesthem for the future. Children learn from parents, schools, life experiences, what they watch and other influences around them, and it can be either positive learning or negative learning. There is one subject that is difficult to teach and have control over because of misunderstandings, lack of teaching, and publicity. Sex education has been a major debate for children under eighteen, because there are some parents that want it ta ught in schools and others that do not because of different reasonsRead MoreSexual Education And Sex Education1358 Words   |  6 PagesDo Not Have Sex, You Will Get Pregnant Die (Mean Girls) What if a rapist was coming at someone? Do kids know what to do besides lie on the ground and cry? What if a teenager had an unplanned pregnancy? Do they know their options about abortion or adoption or keeping the baby? Will young adults know the results of their choices? Sexual education teaches all of the following, and kids in the curriculum are more likely to defend themselves in a plot when they were approached by a stranger (â€Å"TeachingRead MoreShould Sex Education Be Taught?1226 Words   |  5 PagesShould sex education be taught to young adults in school? This has been a major controversial topic for many years amongst parents, teachers, and other community members. Their biggest concern is that it teaches students that it is okay to have sex at a young age and think that the program shows them how sexual intercourse is done. Although, this is not the intent of the class, like some may think. They tend to believe that abstinence-only programs should be taught in schools . Allowing sexual education

Latino History and Culture Free Essays

Historians are still unclear on when the first Latinos appeared in North America. The most prevalent theory is that they were nomadic hunters who came from the Asia mainland and across the then frozen Bering Straight into Alaska. Regardless of their origins their main region is now the Americas, both North and South and it is expected that the Latino population in the United States will increase by 40% in the next ten years (US Census 2010). We will write a custom essay sample on Latino History and Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now Their culture and society is steeped in tradition and understanding and appreciating their culture is imperative for any person working in the social services field. Latino Traditions and Culture The Latino culture contains many diverse sub-cultures, however there is a common theme and religion that run through all Latino cultures. An important cultural trend that is prevalent among many Latinos is the closeness of the society; the lack of personal space in their culture is very important as they are more open to physical contact and showing affection. Social Expectations Time orientation tends to be different for Latinos who are generally more concerned with the present than with the future or planning ahead. Due to this trend, it is often helpful to remind Latino’s the day before an appointment or activity. This also relates to why many Latinos tend to focus more on work than advancing their education. Latino’s see work as a way of receiving money now which is a way they can improve their lives now and if needed have enough to send money to relatives back in their countries of origin. However, advancing their education would mean that they make more in the future but less in the short term where their focus is. The Latino family, including extended family, is the primary social unit, and source of support. Often Latino men who are in the United States come looking for a way to support their family’s back in their home town. Even making minimum wage or less here the amount that these Latino’s send home can make a significant change for the families in their home country. This support of family also extends to those who come to the United States. Often when Latino’s migrate to the United States they stay with family or friends who have previously immigrated. Respect and Interpersonal Relationships Respect is important in Latino culture as it indicates appropriate behavior towards others based on age, gender, social and economic position and authority. Formality is seen as a sign of respect, including the use of suffixes such as Senor/ Don, Senora/ Dona. Another sign of respect in Latino culture is avoiding eye contact with authority figures. This is often confusing to Americans who see maintaining eye contact as a way of showing several things including respect, listening, understanding, and honesty. Latinos tend to stress the importance of personal rather than institutional relationships. Interpersonal contact is very important to develop trust when interacting with a person of Latino culture. It is common that Latino clients find it uncomfortable to leave messages in office voicemails for this reason. Trust is built on mutual respect over time. Showing personal interest in Latino individual may help establishing trust. Latino families are characterized by traditional gender roles. Men are expected to have machismo or prominently exhibited masculinity this means men should be rational, strong, authoritarian, and independent. Women are expected to be submissive, dependant, as well as take care of the children and the household. Many Latino’s believe that events are meant to happen because of fate, a power that they cannot control. Many Latino clients will say â€Å"It’s my cross to bear†, or â€Å"If God wishes so†. This fatalism may prevent them from seeking help. Because of this fatalism, spiritual healers play an important role in helping people with physical as well as mental concerns. Some Latinos believe that bewitching is often the cause of a change in behavior or illness. Bewitching involves the use of magical acts and supernatural powers either by humans or supernatural beings. This may simply involve the casting of a spell. Religion and Traditions In general Latinos are very religious, 90% of Latinos are Catholic or Protestant. The church serves as a guide for perceptions and behaviors, influencing decisions and judgments. The church is often an important source for social support and interaction. Latino churches also teach the value of family and are often a place where there are Spanish language masses. The communal nature of Latinos is represented by the use of food in the culture, sharing and offering food to guests is important and often relates to the holidays that Latino’s often celebrate. Holidays are an important part of Latino culture, some holidays relate to the religious, while others relate to anniversaries of major battles in Mexican history. All the major catholic holidays are celebrated by Latinos such as Christmas, Lent and Easter as well as the Catholic rites of passage Baptism, Holy Communion, and Confirmation. The Day of the Virgin Guadalupe is December 12. The Virgin of Guadalupe is Mexico’s most popular religious and cultural image, with the titles â€Å"Queen of Mexico†, â€Å"Empress of the Americas† and â€Å"Patroness of the Americas†, both Miguel Hidalgo (in the Mexican War of Independence) and Emiliano Zapata (during the Mexican Revolution) carried Flags bearing the Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Guadalupe Victoria, the first Mexican president changed his name in her honor. The shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City is the most visited Catholic shrine in the world. (Elizondo, 1997) The Day of the dead is another holiday celebrated by Latinos which is connected to the Catholic church. November 2 is the Catholic holiday of All Souls Day, for Latinos it becomes The Day of the Dead. The holiday focuses on gatherings of family and friends to pray for and remember friends and family members who have died. Shrines and food are prepared and often brought to the cemetery where loved ones are buried. The flower type Marigold also play a part in the celebrations. Cinco de Mayo is a holiday held on May 5 that commemorates the Mexican army’s unlikely victory over French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. Mexican Independence Day had its bicentennial on September 16, 2010. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, known for his progressive ideas, declared Mexican independence in the town of Dolores on September 16, 1810. History and Immigration Waves of migrants came into the Americas starting around 50,000 B. C. during the Pleistoncene Ice Age, and the migration ended when a melting trend came about around 9,000 B. C. The first Mexicans were hunter-gatherers until around 8000 B. C. when they started to breed Maize plants. In 1800 B. C. he most intensive Maize farming began. Maize or corn, along with squash and beans were a staple of the early Mexican diet and are still a major part of Mexican diets today. ((Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999)). Between 1800 B. C. and 1521 A. D. complex cultures began to form, some becoming very advanced, such as the Maya, and the Aztec. These cultures along with others made significant technological, cultural, and scientific advances, such as building p yramid-temple complexes, sophisticated mathematics and astronomy, and the creation of the Long Count Calendar. These civilizations had large cites and militaries and ruled over the Valley of Mexico until the Spanish Conquest begin in 1517 A. D. ((Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999)). The Spanish Conquest Fifteen century Spanish explorers discovered what we know today as Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. In the following years, Spain expanded its empire into the â€Å"new world† by force. The conquistadores had more advanced weapons and were thought to be gods by the indigenous people because they were unstoppable. Spain claimed Mexico as part of its empire, although it took 200 more years to complete the conquest. Spanish culture spread from Mexico to Central and South America, and over what is now the southwest United States. Early Spanish settlements were established in what became Florida, New Mexico and California. ((Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999)). Conquistadores claimed treasures for the Spanish crown and brought Catholic missionaries to forcibly convert indigenous inhabitants. Some indigenous populations became extinct during this period. Over the three centuries of Spanish rule less than 700,000 Spaniards, mostly men settled in Mexico, this led to intermarriage of Spaniards and indigenous natives that produced persons of mixed blood which the term Mestizos represents. The Spanish also brought diseases such as small pox which the indigenous peoples had no immunity to it and eventually died in the hundreds of thousands. (Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). The Colonial Period: 1650-1810 During this period Mexico was a part of the much larger Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto Rico, Central America, the south estern United States, and the Philippines. Colonial law was destructive and unfair to the natives, as no Mexican native, even one with pure Spanish blood, could hold an administrative office. From an economic point of view, New Spain was administered not to compete with Spain in terms of exports, such as grapes and olives. Only two ports were open to foreign trade, one on the Atlantic and the other on the Pacific. Foreigners had to obtain a special permit to travel in Mexico and few Mexicans were permitted to travel abroad. Few books were available and education was discouraged. Mexican natives live in serfdom. ((Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). Mexican Independence: 1807- 1910 In 1807 Napoleon I invaded Spain and placed his brother on the Spanish throne. Mexican conservatives and rich landowners who supported Spain’s royal family objected to the liberal policies that Napoleon favored. Mexican liberals who wanted a democratic Mexico allied with the Mexican conservatives who wanted a Spanish monarch rather than Napoleon’s brother, these two sides agreed only that Mexico must achieve independence. ((Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, known for his progressive ideas, declared Mexican independence in the town of Dolores on September 16, 1810. This declaration started a drawn out war that lasted 11 years, with liberating troops entering Mexico City in 1821. The Treaty of Cordoba, signed August 24, 1821 verified that Mexico was now a sovereign nation. After achieving freedom from Spain, Mexico struggled with the decision to be an empire or a republic. The Mexican government went through many changes often by co-ops during this period of instability. One example of this is when federalists asked General Santa Anna to overthrow the current president, Bustamante. Santa Anna did this and later went on to serve as president 11 times, including when Texas declared itself a sovereign nation and later during the Mexican-American War. The Mexican-American war was when The United States occupied California and attacked Mexico City. The war ended with the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which stated that Mexico must sell its northern territories to the United States for 15 million dollars. However, after war with The United States, Mexico’s political nrest continued (Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). The Mexican Revolution: 1910-1929 Many Mexican were unhappy with their government, so after blatant election fraud, from an incumbent president, riots broke out and the revolution began. The revolutionary forces led by, among others, Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza defeated the Federal Army, but later disagreed on how to organize the government. These disagreements became a political standoff that led to a violent struggle for control that lasted for more than 20 years. The Constitution created in 1917 still governs Mexico today. (Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999)) The PRI and the rise of Contemporary Mexico: 1929- present In 1929 the National Mexican Party was formed by the president, General Plutarco Elias Calles. The National Mexican Party convinced most of the remaining revolutionary generals to hand over their personal armies to the Mexican Army, this act ended the Mexican revolution. Later renamed Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) this new party ruled Mexico for the rest of the 20th century. The PRI is referred to as the three-legged stool, in reference to Mexican workers, peasants, and bureaucrats. The PRI did not lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989. It was not until July 2, 2000 that Vicente Fox of the opposition, National Action Party, won the presidency, ending the PRIs 71 year hold on the presidency (Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). The PRI achieved economic growth and prosperity until the late 1960s when the party’s management of the economy led to several crises and political unrest that led to the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. More economic crisis in 1976 and again in 1982 led to the nationalization of Mexico’s banks. In 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement, this strengthened Mexico’s economy. Mexico now has a free market economy that has entered the trillion dollar class (Meyer, Sherman Deeds, 1999). Mexico is a major drug producing nation, an estimated 90% of the cocaine smuggled into the United States every year moves through Mexico. Mexico is also a major supplier of heroin, ecstasy, and the largest foreign supplier of marijuana and methamphetamines to the US market. Major drug syndicates control the majority of drug trafficking in the country. The Mexican government conducts the largest independent illicit crop eradication program in the world, however, Mexico continues to be the primary shipment point for U. S. bound cocaine from South America. (CIA. gov, 2010). One the other hand there are also many negative adjustment for Latinos who migrate to the United States. Stigmatization of Latino immigrants is common in the United States; Americans often assume that anyone who is Latino and doesn’t speak English perfectly is an illegal immigrant and look down on them. Institutionalized racism is another negative adjustment factor as well. Laws are being passed in Arizona that requires Latinos to carry documentation of their citizen status at all times. Latino’s are often segregated from other parts of the community because they live in the poorer neighborhoods with many other immigrants. The language difference often hinders communication and keeps Latino’s in lower class communities, where others speak Spanish. Because Latino’s are oriented on the present time they focus more on work the education which could increase their socio-economic status and help their adjustment to The United States. There is a lack of support for education that would help immigrants learn English or would help Latino children prepare for higher education. Because of this lack of education many Latino’s have low level or under skilled jobs. Latinos: Oppression and Marginalization Latinos are one of the largest minority groups in America. The number of Latinos had steadily increased over the last forty years in the United States (Bergad Klein, 2010). Census data from the year 1970 indicates that there were 9. million Latinos in the United States, and it is estimated that the census data from 2010 will indicate that there are 48. 7 million Latinos living in the US. Census projections for the year 2050 indicate that there will be 102. 6 million Latinos in America (US Census Bureau, 2010). Although the numbers of Latinos has steadily increased and are expected to continue to rise, the level of marginalization and oppression they endure on a regular basis has not changed substantially over the years. Contributing factors to the oppression and marginalization of Latinos in American society include limited or lack of opportunities in the areas of economic stability, fair access to housing, marginal or no access to affordable health care, poor access and quality of education, and limited political representation. Latinos are marginalized based on economic factors, which play a predominant role in their ability to achieve a higher standard of living. Obtaining higher paying jobs, adequate housing and education for themselves and their children is often much more difficult than it is for other populations in America. As reported above, Latinos often migrate to America with the desire and hope to earn a living wage to support themselves and their families. Unfortunately, Latinos often work in service jobs which offer low wages and few benefits. They are often hired for jobs such as landscaping, janitorial, and various service jobs which require little to no formal training or education. These jobs are considered menial jobs in our society and often fail to meet the basic needs of the workers, let alone offer disposable income that can be used to obtain a greater quality of life. Our group interviewed two men who are undocumented workers. These are some of the most marginalized and oppressed Latinos in America due to the fact that they have no documents indicating that they are able to work in the United States legally. Economic reasons were cited by both men; one who was in his mid-forties and the other who was in his early twenties, as factors for their immigration to the United States. Both men indicated that the job opportunities were far greater for them in American then in their home countries of El Salvador and Honduras. These men indicated that they are fully aware that they are discriminated against and oppressed here in the United States because of their legal status, and both men reported feeling powerless to change the system without obtaining legal status to work freely in America. They reported subminimum wages and long hours as landscapers. They also reported that they often get taken advantage of by those â€Å"hiring† them for the day as laborers, as sometimes they are not paid at all and they feel they have no recourse under the legal system. The wages they do make are barely sufficient for them to live on, so they find themselves living in large group situations with other immigrants to pool their resources. They report that communal living in their only option for survival at this time, especially during the current economic depression. The few dollars they may have each month after their own basic needs are met are sent to their families in their homelands to assist them in meeting their basic living needs. They reported that they would need approximately two thousand dollars each to become documented, which is a tremendous and impossible amount of money for them to save considering the meager earnings they have each month. The poor overall economic conditions of Latinos have a severely limiting effect on their ability to purchase a home and enjoy home ownership, which is touted as part of â€Å"success† here in America. Research indicates that Hispanic or Latino households have less than ten cents for every dollar in wealth owned by white households. Growing wage inequality makes it very difficult to emerge from the cycle of poverty or to accumulate assets and increase their net worth (News Batch, 2008, p. 1). Only one in four Latino households owns no assets other than a car or unsecured debt (Lowery, 2010, p. 1). In 2007, the median non-Hispanic white family reported $171,200 in net worth versus only $28,300 for non-white and Hispanic families. Latinos have been far more likely than whites to receive higher-priced loans, when they are given loans, and carry higher debt relative to their incomes. Loan approval is difficult for most Latinos in good economic times, and almost impossible in recessionary times. Communities of color commonly experience higher crime rates and lower tax bases than predominately white neighborhoods. Latinos are a relatively young group or population. They are not as highly educated, and they tend to be concentrated in high cost regions of the country, such as New York and California, where homeownership can be less attainable, or it forces them into low income neighborhoods. As well, in these areas, Latinos are much more likely to be immigrants (Dugan, 2004). In the current economic conditions the rates of foreclosures disproportionately impact communities of color. The income gap continues to deepen in America between the wealthy and the poor at an alarming rate, with the poorer class increasing in numbers with each passing year. Research indicates that these economic and social disparities stand to grow worse in the years to come, which further oppresses Latinos and other people of color. Not only are poor economic opportunities and access to adequate housing real issues for Latinos in America, heath care is a serious concern. Many Latinos work in menial jobs earning minimum wage or less. These jobs often do not offer health insurance benefits and the cost of purchasing health insurance is prohibitive for many Latinos and their families. Often they must rely upon government programs such as Medicaid, which is a needs based health insurance program for the indigent. This in turn leads to negative perceptions of Latinos â€Å"draining the system† and further fuels oppressive and discriminatory acts against them. Other contributing factors facing Latinos in the area of health related issues are poor diets and access to adequate nutrition. Research indicates that there are a disproportionately high number of fast food establishments in economically depressed areas in which predominately people of color reside (Freeman, 2007, p. 2225). This leads to increased health risks, including heart disease, obesity, and diabetes in these populations. Low income families often cannot afford healthy, nutritious foods from grocery stores, and grocery stores are often not easily found in low income areas, whereas fast food establishments are plentiful (Freeman, 2007). This is a marginalizing factor that often goes unnoticed by society. Between 1991 and 2001, the obesity rate among Latinos has gone up from 11. 6% to 23. 7% within the United States. 23% of Hispanic men are obese, and 27. 5% of women are obese. These statistics are higher than those of non-Hispanics within the U. S. Also, Latinos are twice more likely to have diabetes and to suffer from various diabetes-related illnesses such as kidney and eye disease. Studies have found that these ailments can stem from poor eating habits, and tend to increase with immigration (Arizona State University, 2010). Lack of access to quality educational opportunities and support is another contributing factor to the oppression and marginalization of Latinos in American society. The high school dropout rate among Latinos is higher than any other minority group, with only four in ten high school aged students obtaining a high school diploma. The statistics for the Latino high school dropout rate in Nevada is currently one of the highest in the nation with only 42% of Latino students earning a high school diploma (Sitwell, 2010). Young men still have higher dropout rates then young women, however the gap is closing in this area, and society is seeing more young women exit the school setting without graduating from high school, which sets them up for a life time of menial employment opportunities and low wages. As well, research indicates that by age 26, thirty eight percent of white high school graduates have obtained a bachelor’s degree, in comparison to 18 percent of Hispanic high school graduates. The U. S. Department of Education identifies seven undergraduate attributes negatively associated with postsecondary degree attainment. The risk characteristics are delayed college entry, part-time attendance, financial independent status, single parent status, having dependents, not having a regular high school diploma, and working full-time. The average number of risk attributes for Latino undergraduates is 2. 4, in comparison to 2. 0 for white undergraduates. Often the level of education individuals obtain is directly related to their quality of life as they are better able to afford a higher standard of living with increased education. Many Latinos do not have the basic education required to ensure financial security in American society. One of the major barriers for Latinos obtaining adequate educational levels is in their use and understanding of the English language. For many Latino families, English is often a second language which makes it difficult for learning to take place in the American culture. Additionally, the recent political campaigns here in Nevada offered a clear indication that political discrimination is rampant in our society. The recent negative political ads ran by candidate Sharon Angle were a blatant example of institutional discrimination against Latinos. The television ads ran by Sharon Angle for Senate showed Latinos dressed up as gang bangers with a narrator  warning â€Å"waves of illegal aliens are streaming across our borders, joining violent gangs and forcing families to live in fear†. These types of negative ads only enforce the long standing stereotypes about Latinos. The Latino population is split over whether immigrant and native-born Latinos are working together to achieve common political goals. About half (45%) say they are, and half (46%) say they are not. Both the native born (who comprise 47% of the adult Latino population) and the foreign born (who comprise 53%) are roughly equally divided on their perceptions of political solidarity. On every level, from the micro, mezzo and macro levels, Latinos face inequities as a result of our social system that supports it. As social workers we must be aware that the issues of oppression, marginalization and discrimination against Latinos are a result of a social system that promotes and justifies marginalizing others. We must look oward changing the systems that support oppression, rather than looking to change the people who are victims of the system. Push and Pull factors Latinos travel and migration to the United States can be understood in terms of pull and push factors, these factors that would pull Latinos to the United States include the Network theory, those who migrated first would help their family and friends come to US, who would then help others, and so on. The United States has higher living standards than some places in Mexico where some places the water is not safe to drink among other factors. The United States has higher wages, even those who make less than minimum wage make more than they could make in some areas of Mexico. Factors that push Latinos out of their native country include shortage of jobs, unemployment, and low wages. Political conflicts are common in some areas of Latin America as well as government conflicts with drug rings, Latinos do not want to be caught in the middle of a conflict or have their family caught and so they migrate to the United States. These conflicts can also lead to forced displacement, especially in Central America where there is insufficient lands. Some countries in Latin America violate human rights, have high levels of corruption and crime. In Latin American countries there is often persistent poverty and parts of the population go hungry at times. Positive-Adjustment Factors Latinos have some positive adjustment factors for migration, such as a strong desire for a better life for their family. They have supportive families, especially when some family members have previously migrated. These family members help in many ways including lodging, food, networking, finding jobs, and financially. Friends also help in the ways mentioned above. With Latino’s becoming one of the largest minorities in the United States they are beginning to have a significant political voice. Negative- Adjustment Factors One the other hand there are also many negative adjustment for Latino’s who migrate to the United States. Stigmatization of Latino immigrants is common in the United States; Americans often assume that anyone who is Latino and doesn’t speak English perfectly is an illegal immigrant and look down on them. Institutionalized racism is another negative adjustment factor as well. Laws are being passed in Arizona that require Latino’s to carry documentation of their citizen status at all times. Latino’s are often segregated from other parts of the community because they live in the poorer neighborhoods with many other immigrants. The language difference often hinders communication and keeps Latino’s in lower class communities, where others speak Spanish. Because Latino’s are oriented on the present time they focus more on work the education which could increase their socio-economic status and help their adjustment to The United States. There is a lack of support for education that would help immigrants learn English or would help Latino children prepare for higher education. Because of this lack of education many Latino’s have low level or under skilled jobs. Society looks to place blame on individuals and groups in hard economic times rather than examine and blame hard times on a dysfunctional systems which is inherently imbalanced and discriminatory. A profound example of â€Å"blaming† can be witnessed with the recent passage of the Arizona law against Latino immigrants. These types of laws justify institutional discrimination and oppression against minorities (Goodwin, 2010). The vast majority of Latinos-79%-disapprove of the first-of-its-kind Arizona law enacted this year that gives police broad powers to check the immigration status of people. By contrast, the general population approves of the measure by a ratio of two-to-one. This amounts to racial profiling, and would not be tolerated by other ethnic groups. Research further indicates that 25 more states may try to pass similar anti-illegal-immigration laws next year (Goodwin, 2010). Misunderstanding of Cultural Values There are several misunderstanding of cultural value this is due to a lack of bilingual staff in agencies and organizations which lead to misunderstandings of cultural believes and values in our society. Language barriers: Lack of interpreters or bilingual staff available, Legal Status and Fear of deportation are many causes of lack of communication from Hispanics to service providers. Many of the Hispanics will be not be eligible for services for being undocumented, Lack of knowledge on how the US health care system works. They may think it’s cheaper to go to the ER than to a PCP, Many of the Hispanic families won’t have access to health insurance coverage. Latino children who are not US citizens or legal residents will not be eligible for the health insurance state programs, Lack of knowledge on how the US educational and legal system works. Hispanics may think they can’t file for protective orders or custody, Lack of information that leads to misconceptions about resources in the community. Many Hispanics may think that they are not eligible for WIC, Food Stamps, etc. his is anther misunderstanding but for many Hispanics a large majority who have children born in the United States or what is known by many as â€Å"Anchor Babies† may be eligible for government related services and assistance. Practice Issues As a service provide it is important to incorporate a positive environment to all cultures. Any and all services such as written materials and audiovisual tools should be presented in Spanish when available. When working in the Latino Culture it is important to follow a set of guidelines that focus on what makes the Latino Culture and those within it comfortable. As a Service provider using the guidelines below will help to effectively work within this culture. †¢ The effectiveness of word-of-mouth referrals to the center should be recommended. It is not uncommon that referrals are made because a neighbor or family member had been under treatment at the center. Once individuals and families are aware that the center offers low-cost mental-health services in Spanish and that the services offered are respectful of Latino values and beliefs, the good reputation becomes a viable source for future referrals and treatment compliance. validation, generational life reviews, and ceremonies and rituals. When working within the Latino culture it is important to focus on appropriate ways that incorporate an understanding of another’s culture. There are ways you can promote a comfortable environment using the guidelines below. One can have a clearer understanding of what can be done and what cannot. ? Strive to spell and pronounce names correctly. ? Don’t assume all Latino’s are Mexican ask of origin and recognize differences among Latino culture. ? Avoid asking if a person speaks â€Å"Mexican or† Puerto Rican†. Spanish is Spanish. ? Use qualified interpreters. Children should never be asked to act as interpreters. Try to learn Spanish. Speaking in Spanish facilitates a greater level of comfort. ? Identify and address the decision-maker or spokesperson, the Patriarch and Matriarch. ? Be formal in interactions with older Hispanic. ? Encourage the family to ask questions. Explain thoroughly and confirm understanding. ? Check to make sure recommendations will fit into the family lifestyle. ? And finally listening is the key ? Use Spanish words you know when comfortable. Latino Education In our current educational system there have been some studies that discuss the differences with Mexican American children and American children. To better understand these differences one must first identify that Mexican American Children have a different learning style. There are four important aspects that can improve the way that these children learn. These four aspects are; Environmental Learning Style, Emotional Learning Style, Physiological and Sociological Learning Style. They may be homesick for their families, friends, language, and customs. Economic survival is the primary concern for immigrant families. Teachers need to recognize that it is likely that the children of these newly arrived Hispanic families will be motivated, hard-working students. Their parents have sacrificed their old life to provide a better life for them and their children. Immigrant children might suffer from culture shock when arriving to the United States. They may be homesick for their families, friends, language, and customs. Many times the need for economic survival is the primary concern for immigrant families. Empowering Teachers Teachers need to develop a multicultural curriculum that celebrates Mexican Americans for their Mexican American students. The following contributed to the effectiveness of teaching Mexican American students: ? Teachers who accepted full responsibility for helping students. ? Teachers who were extremely caring and nurturing to students. ? The encouragement of collaborative learning. ? Student access to a wide variety of learning materials. ? If allowed in a teacher’s school district, the utilization of both Spanish and English when needed to enhance learning. Conclusion Latinos are politically marginalized and oppressed in the United States. Inequity is the virtually inevitable result of two powerful forces: prejudice on the level of the individual and political imbalance on the social level. Through Building Effective Communications, Increase Partnerships between schools and Latino Hispanic Communities, Establish linkages and dialogue, and Seed new initiatives that foster change with immigration reform. We can begin building a better foundation for current and future immigrants. Research indicates that when sources of inequity are built into the social system, resulting differences are neither trivial nor discrete. Such inequities persist over time and space. Often, the inequities and oppression is blamed on the discriminated-against (Power Inequities by M. Dugan). Mexican American students face many challenges. Many are from poor backgrounds. Their families may lack the communication skills, knowledge, and experience to take advantage of educational, cultural, and social opportunities. Some Mexican American students are newly arrived immigrants who may experience culture shock and limited English proficiency. However, with proper education that includes caring teachers who have high expectations for these students, Mexican American students can become high achieving, successful adults. References Issue Brief). Retrieved from The American Independent News Network: http://minnesotaindependent. com/60416/foreclosure-crisis-race Arizona State University. (2010). Latino Health Issues: Diet and Health. Retrieved from Arizona State University: College of Liberal Arts : http://www. asu. edu/courses/css335/ Bergad, L. W. , Klein, H. S. (2010). Hispanics in the United States: A demographic, social, and economic history, 1980-2005. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Dugan, M. A. (204, February 2004). Power Inequities (White Paper). Retrieved from Beyond Intractability: http://www. beyondintractability. org/essay/power_inequities/ Freeman, A. (2007). Fast Food: Oppression through Poor Nutrition. California Law Review, 6, 2221-2259. Goodwin, L. (2010, October 28, 2010). Report: 25 states considering Arizona-style immigration laws. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com/2010/04/24/us/politics/24immig. html How to cite Latino History and Culture, Papers

Cooperation and Governance in Trade †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Cooperation and Governance in Trade. Answer: Introduction US President Donald Trump has taken a pledge to abandon all trade negotiations, mainly multilateral trade deals and he has solely negotiated bilateral trade agreements for his nation. However, it is not clear for Trump that bilateral trade agreements can produce far rich economic values than multilateral trade agreements. Donald Trump's administration has not equally evaluated future and all current trade agreements based on their merits, however, they just confine the US to trade agreements. In the previous occasion, Donald Trump took his office and he had withdrawn all memorandums that the United States had with the Trans-Pacific Partnership. After that, he subsequently took a pledge to nullify all multilateral negotiations with nations. In past, Trump proclaimed that bilateral trade agreements are beneficial than multilateral trade agreements and he wanted to have bilateral trade agreements with the UK and Japan (Deal-making of Trump, Economist.com). Trump is trying to take protec tionism trade policy restraining trade between nations through economic methods. Free trade is a blessing that a government can offer to people and some think that Trump's protectionism is a fainthearted decision that tries to protect the US from numerous competitors. US economy has been growing with 3% annual rate in last quarter and Economists were expecting at least 2.5% economic growth. US have trade agreements with WTO and OECD and other countries that are both bilateral and multilateral. GDP of US was $18.55 trillion and GDP per capita of USA was $57,436. The US is one of the developed countries in the world and inflation rate of the USA is 0.4% in recent time (Deal-making of Trump, Economist.com). However, US President tries to cancelling all the trade agreements of US and that has been shown in abandoning the ambitious 12-nations Trans-Pacific Partnership. President Trump ended the traditional trade policy and he put an end of multinational agreements of trade that can set global economics for many years. Trump wants to put an end to the concept that the previous governments orthodoxy in expanding global trade of US. Trump thought the trade rules with Japan, Chile, Canada and Australia are complex web and that Trump wanted to put a stop to trade agreement. Instead, Trump thought that American employees can be protected against competition from low-wage countries like Malaysia and Vietnam. On the other side, China can fill the vacuum what the US is going to make in the global economy by cancelling all kinds of trade agreements. Trump's withdrawing decision from the trade of Trans-Pacific Partnership reversed a free-trade policy adopted by presidents of two parties in past during the Cold War. Trump thought that the multilateral and bilateral trade deals are like ridiculous agreements that are taken employees from the US and taken the companies from the US, stopping the trade agreements can make the situation reverse. Dealing North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Trump has scheduled meetings with diplomats and leaders of Mexico and Canada (Deal-making of Trump, Economist.com). NAFTA has always been a major factor in American trade policy and critics blamed this to lower wages and loss of jobs. US Presidents decisions on cancelling bilateral and multilateral trade agreements in favour of a protectionist trade policy Trump's opinions about trade deals are zero-sum and adversarial. Trump opines that other countries to which the US are dealing in trade are the spoils and they are not just the trade partners. Trump puts the China's accession to WTO as a bad deal and it has destroyed the chance of American supremacy in trade and it has been creating issues in American jobs. American president tries to spread the trade deficit issues around the world and not just the USA. Trump faces the threat from China and Chinese competition captured export orders from the US, they also try to encroach the domestic customers and the global market is filled with cheap products imports (Irwin; p.56). Trumps view on trade policy is ambiguous; however, his alarm is not only the foreign completion but also trade deals suspicion (Aggarwal et al. p.67). However, Trump does not want to be radical in his decision of trade policy; however, he wants to see the cabinet choices with making a transformative and seismic shift in trade policy. In Trade policy, he wants to be US's most protectionists President and Protectionism around the globe is creeping up and the recent trend can be turbo-charged. Trump imposed a tariff of 35%-45% on products coming from China and Mexico and these countries could go to WTO's court to intervene. Moreover, US might face issues in exporting their products to China also a many of the products are sent to China from the US as China is a potential market. Bilateral trade agreements can be defined as the treaties between two countries giving the countries favour in trading status with each other (Lester et al. p.56). The main aim of the bilateral agreement is to give the countries expanded access in each others countries in order to accelerate the economic growth of both participants. In bilateral agreements, there are mainly five general parts in order to standardise the business. These five operations keep one participant away from stealing the innovation, products and dumping the products at lower prices. Both countries in the bilateral agreement cannot do unfair subsidies in the prices they are offering (Cooper; p.45). These agreements clearly state the standardise regulations like environment protection, labour standards. This process needs to discuss eliminating the tariffs and trade taxes. In bilateral trade agreements, both the parties can easily negotiate in differences and make the things clear. As compared to multilateral trade agreements, bilateral trade agreements are easier to involve the two nations and to negotiate (Drury et al. p.67). Concept of multilateral trade agreement Multilateral trade agreements can be defined as commerce treaties that are done between three or more countries. Moreover, in multilateral trade agreements can decrease tariffs and these make the business easier to export and import (Gleeson et al. p.23). However, in this treaties or agreements, it is difficult to negotiate as there are many countries associated with this agreement. Once all countries sign the trade agreement, it becomes robust and it can create large scope for the countries to do the business. As compared to bilateral agreements, these agreements are complex and hard to resolute the conflict among countries. Multilateral agreements can impact on economic growth on the countries as there are many other nations related to this. In this kind of trade agreement, there are lower trade barriers among the participating countries. These agreements can result to increase in economic integration among the counties. As suggested by Mathiason et al. p.34), in order to liberalis e the trade in order to make an interdependent global economy, the multilateral trade agreement is helpful. In multilateral trade agreement, all the signatories behave same with each other; therefore no country can get an extra advantage or better deal. On the contrary, in emerging market, the multilateral trade agreement is critical as it makes the market size smaller and makes the market less competitive. Moreover, a multilateral trade agreement can increase the business for every participant in this trade and it standardises the commerce rules for all trading nations. In addition, multilateral trade agreements enable the trading partner countries to negotiate deals upon the trade, on the other side, these trade agreements need to undergo through the approval process, and therefore it takes time (Hoekman et al. p.89). As compared to a bilateral trade agreement, multilateral trade agreement helps all the countries to develop, unlike bilateral agreement favours only strong economy country. Negotiations are most of the time make the business practices through multilateral agreements make co mplex and smaller countries with slower economic growth face the issue to compete with giant nations. Trade protectionism In its essence, trade protectionism is a form of economic strategy or policy that primarily blocks, or at least limits, any form of unfair competition from the foreign industries. Trade protectionism is, in its core nature, a politically motivated defence mechanism for the countrys economy and internal industries (Kerr et al. p.78). In the principles of economics, comparative advantage is a major theory that forms a strong and acceptable argument in favour of free trade. While even laymen, without any knowledge about the functions and theories of economics, would understand the fact that free trade is a necessary tool to help a country develop and flourish in different industries, the same people would also argue that local companies must be protected and this has to be done by limiting the import of cheap goods from foreign countries (Lewis; p.67). Imposing tariffs, subsidies and quotas are the best and most popular ways of making sure that imports from foreign countries are regulated and exports of the country's own products are higher than the imports. Protecting domestic industries is a necessity, but this must be done with keeping a lot of parameters and aspects in mind. In the process of protecting the domestic manufacturers, if the national economy and performances are hampered, then the adversities are m uch greater than the positive outcomes. Protectionism is a bundle of methods and policies that all aim to restrict trade between countries and promote fair competition. But the vital aspect that remains ignored is the fact that protectionism also hampers the advantages that can be reaped from comparative advantage. Comparative advantage and free trade are the two most important and valid drivers of national development and sustainable development (Yarbrough et al. p.56). The needs for protectionism rise from the objectives of protecting domestic manufacturers from the foreign cheaper products and make the domestic manufacturers more competitive. In most cases, this need arises from weak job markets that can only be revived by making a lot of domestic jobs. Objectives of protectionism There are some reasons that are the prime arguments and theories in favour of trade protectionism. Creating jobs is one of the most important outcomes that are to be achieved from protectionism. Different trade barriers can be used to protect sunrise or infant industries of a country. When a country is getting into a new industry or market, tariffs can actually prove to be beneficial in order to help the new industry to become steady and a strong operational ground that can face foreign and international competition. If domestic industries are ensured protection, there is a high chance that the country would be in turn boosting its own comparative advantage over other countries (Anderson and Yoto; p.45). Comparative advantage means, in a very broad and general way, the capability of one country to produce or manufacture one commodity in a more efficient and optimal process than another country which also produces or manufactures the same commodity. Economies of scale can benefit infant industries if protection is enabled and different methods are imposed. Eventually, these industries would expand and develop skills that would make them eligible to compete with other countrie s on a global level. The trade barriers and regulations may then be lifted. There are industries in every country that are on the verge of decline and are slowly dying out. These industries also need protection from foreign competition so that their decline can be slowed down. Strategic industries of every country need to be protected because they are vital to the well-being of the countrys overall sustainable development (Lewis; p.34). Water, energy, weaponry, food production, heavy engineering are some the basic industries that are given protection from foreign competition. President Trump has taken a romise to surrender all multilateral trade agreements and to embrace the bilateral trade agreements for the United States of America. However, there is an absence of evidence that the agreements of bilateral trade have produced better economic objectives than the trade agreements with more than one country (Milner and Tingley; p.313-343). The administration under Trump should evaluate equally all the current and trade agreements based on their merits instead of reallocating the America to the bilateral negotiations. President Trump has taken a promise to surrender all multilateral trade agreements and to embrace the bilateral trade agreements for the United States of America. However, there is an absence of evidence that the agreements of bilateral trade have produced better economic objectives than the trade agreements with more than one country (Milner and Tingley; p.313-341). The administration under Trump should evaluate equally all the current and trade agreements based on their merits instead of shifting America to the bilateral negotiations. President Trump has been quite clear about the intention to repair the trade policy of United States of America. Days after acquiring office, he took into account the presidential memorandum by withdrawing the country from the Trans Pacific Partnership (Milner and Tingley; p.313-341). This was considered as a 12 nations agreement of trade, which has aimed at enhancing the strategic and economic links to the Asia Pacific region. Subsequently, he pledged to give up all the multilateral negotiations supporting the bilateral trade agreements with the countries such as Japan and United Kingdom. Trump along with his team argued that bilateral agreements have produced trading deals which would prove to be more advantageous to America. In one of his speeches, Trump outlined his priorities that America would further negotiate fair and bilateral agreements, which would bring back jobs and industries to the country. Peter Navvarro, holds same views that the problems with the multilateral deals is that the country tends to reduce its power of sovereignty and surrender it (Fukuyama; p.134). These are the criticisms originated from the belief that the trade agreements with other countries requires United States of America to make more number of concessions than the trade agreements with only single partner, which results in the origin of deals which is harming the economy of Country. The fear of Trumps opposition to the multilateral trade agreements have given birth to a significant question: Do the Bilateral Trade yields more growth in economy in the United States then the multilateral deals in todays America? What are the consequences? It is tough to find a simple relationship between the specific trade negotiations and health of economy. However, after examining the trade growth by following the pathway of new trade agreements is regarded as a useful proxy (Fukuyama; p.134). This is perfect because the main aim of the trade agreements in to encourage trade between partners and international trade is considered as an engine to the growth of economy. It enlarges the market entry for the exporters from America, reduces costs of input for the manufacturers from America and prices from for the countrys consumers. The following charts would demonstrate the increasing in percentage in the total trades (U.S. imports + U.S. exports) with the partners of United States one and five years after several trade agreements of United States came into force (Azevedo, Jost and Ruthmond ; p.231). This incorporates North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, Canada and United States as well as carrying forward the bilateral agreements with the other ten nations around the world. In order to calculate the actual growth in the total trade, the values of dollar in United States exports and imports are being adjusted by the export price indices and import price indices respectively. This states that both the bilateral and multilateral trade benefits America. The reasons that Trump supported the cancellation of multilateralism is that the pie of global trade in shrinking, since the year 2010, when the global trade grew at a 20 percent rate. However, the consequences of embracing Multilateralism are negative. The 80% of the exporters from Mexico now go to USA and 30% of the GDP of Mexico is from the trade of America.. The central bank of Mexico would raise the rates of interest to try to slow down the capital flight, which in turn would cause major unemployment in addition to the import of inflation and a slogging economy. The biggest negative impact of the shift of Trump on the free trade would be on the international economy. This major shift to the bilateral trade agreements would take time; produce a lot of uncertainties as well as the reactions and the counter measures. This would further served to slow down the volumes of the global trade (Tow; p.100). The e merging market economies would consequently pay a price in the decreasing sales of export for strategic trade shift of Trump, the final aim of which is to restore the economic hegemony of United States in the trade relations over the partners in trading- the hegemony which has been weakening in the last few years. Therefore, it can be stated that through the process of weakening multilateralism, Trump after the failure of WTO DOHA round, the President looks forward to weaken many of the pillars of the post war stability such as NATO, WTO and UN (Sundaram; p.143). Another important result is that the other countries would undoubtedly look forward to bypass United States, when it comes to the trade and investment policy. Conclusion In the recent global scenario, the President of the United States of America, Donald Trump has imposed a number of import duties and regulations to promote American exports. This has had a large and widespread impact upon the global economy, as the country is one of the biggest and most powerful economies in the world. With the rise of the modern era, the concept of globalisation and a much more integrated world system, it was only the logical option for the countries to adopt free trade. Free trade fuelled the global development and during the post-World War era, this helped the newly independent countries with providing the support they needed for a fair and balanced market competition. Free trade was one of the biggest reasons for the developing countries to quickly catch up, up till a certain extent, to the Western powers. The countries which had not embraced free trade initially also saw its positive sides and decided to adopt it in their foreign and economic policies and they h ad all reaped the benefits of the same. Reference List Aggarwal, Vinod, and Shujiro Urata, eds.Bilateral trade agreements in the Asia-Pacific: Origins, evolution, and implications. Routledge, 2013. Anderson, James E., and Yoto V. Yotov. "Terms of trade and global efficiency effects of free trade agreements, 19902002."Journal of International Economics99 (2016): 279-298. Azevedo, F., Jost, J. T., and Rothmund, T.. Making America great again: System justification in the US presidential election of 2016.Translational Issues in Psychological Science,3(3), (2017) 231. Cooper, William H. "Free trade agreements: Impact on US trade and implications for US trade policy."Current Politics and Economics of the United States, Canada and Mexico16.3 (2014): 425. Drury, A. Cooper, Jonathan Krieckhaus, and Chika Yamamoto. "How Democracy Facilitates South Korean Interest in Free Trade Agreements."Korea Observer45.1 (2014): 39. Economist.com. (2017). Deal-making of Trump. Available at: https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21711498-whatever-he-thinks-dealmaking-wont-help-mr-trumps-trade-negotiations-donald-trumps-trade [Accessed on 6 Nov. 2017]. Fukuyama, F.. US against the world? Trumps America and the new global order.Financial times,11. (2016) Gleeson, Deborah, and Sharon Friel. "Emerging threats to public health from regional trade agreements."The Lancet381.9876 (2013): 1507-1509. Hoekman, Bernard M., and Petros C. Mavroidis. "WTO la carteor menu du jour? Assessing the Case for More Plurilateral Agreements."European Journal of International Law26.2 (2015): 319-343. Irwin, Douglas A.Free trade under fire. Princeton University Press, 2015. Kerr, William, and Jill Hobbs. "Protectionism is" Alive and Well"-Agriculture in the EU-Canada Trade Agreement."2015 Conference, August 9-14, 2015, Milan, Italy. No. 211840. International Association of Agricultural Economists, 2015. Lester, Simon, Bryan Mercurio, and Lorand Bartels, eds.Bilateral and regional trade agreements: Commentary and analysis. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2016. Lewis, Joanna I. "The rise of renewable energy protectionism: Emerging trade conflicts and implications for low carbon development."Global Environmental Politics(2014). Mathiason, Tiffany, and Angela Cabral. "Symposium: Managing the global environment through trade: WTO, TPP, and TTIP negotiations, and bilateral investment treaties versus regional trade agreements: Introduction."American University International Law Review30.3 (2015): 1. Milner, H. V., Tingley, D.. The choice for multilateralism: Foreign aid and American foreign policy.The Review of International Organizations,8(3), 313-341. (2017). Sundaram, J. K.. Free Trade Agreements, Trade Policy and Multilateralism.Development,59(1-2), 40-47 (2017) Tow, W. T.. Trump and strategic change in Asia.Strategic Insights. (2017) Yarbrough, Beth V., and Robert M. Yarbrough.Cooperation and governance in international trade: The strategic organizational approach. Princeton University Press, 2014.

Husky Injection Molding System Essay Sample free essay sample

By the late fiftiess. Husky had established a repute as a high-quality shaper of plastic casts. particularly â€Å"thinwall† casts used to do peddling cups and other containers. As demand for the injection-molding machinery rose around the Earth. Husky expanded to Europe in the mid-1960s and established a joint venture in Japan in 1971. A new line of modeling systems. tailored for the production of PET bottle preforms. pulled Husky out of its crisis by the terminal of the seventiess. Net incomes from this country allowed the company to spread out into other merchandise lines and extra states during the 1980s and early 1990s. Competitive Advantage: Firm Features At the steadfast degree. public presentation is determined by value and cost place relation to rivals. Value PositionHusky. as the taking house in the preform niche. has a strong value place in comparing to its rivals as it differentiates itself from rivals by offering series of merchandise inventions such as casts. We will write a custom essay sample on Husky Injection Molding System Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page hot smugglers. robotics. and value-added services. This scheme implies that Husky focuses on increasing the perceived value created for clients. which allows it to bear down a premium monetary value. Similarly. since Husky has 60 % ( estimated ) of the world’s preform manufactured on Husky system. their important market portion allows them increase the barrier of entry and go on to put a high monetary value and gain supranormal net incomes as an oligopoly house. Cost Position On the other manus. its comparative cost place is weaker as they offers specialised machines. casts. hot smugglers. and automatons and non strictly standardised machines like Cincinnati Milacron. Hence. it reduces Husky’s ability to vie entirely on monetary value. Business Scheme: Focused Differentiation Strategy Husky follows a distinction scheme. The end of a generic distinction scheme is to add alone characteristics that will increase the sensed value of goods and services in the heads of the consumers so they are willing to pay a higher monetary value while maintaining cost at the same or similar degrees. Furthermore. Husky has a focussed distinction scheme since it focuses on a narrow and niche merchandises. which include medium-tonnage machines. PET. preform casts and hot smugglers ( as shown in Exhibit 2 ) . In this instance. Husky seeks to make higher value for clients than the value that rivals create. through the three value drivers. Merchandise Features: Husky’s employs the latest tools and engineering and their systems are known for their velocity. huskiness. rosin use. and lastingness. For case. Husky preform system might do a set of PET preforms for sodium carbonate bottles with a rhythm clip 10-15 % shorter than a competitor’s system. Therefore. Husky’s cli ents have a higher willingness to pay a premium monetary value for this higher quality merchandise. Gross saless and service: Husky sold entirely via its internal gross revenues force and gave general directors in each part duty for both the local gross revenues force and the local service technicians. Furthermore. Husky invested to a great extent in constructing Technical Centers in cardinal location to supply local proficient support and preparation. In add-on. Husky had deployed a system designed to transport trim parts to any location rapidly. Since a machine dislocation could hold a processor’s operations. clients cared a great trade for speedy services. Husky’s planetary attack to gross revenues and services. strong record on after-sales service and care and decentralized decision-making will therefore increase the sensed value of Husky’s merchandise or service offerings by concentrating on client service and value added services. Therefore. Husky’s clients will hold a higher willingness to pay a premium monetary value with the higher valued service. Customization: Husky’s gross revenues were in the medium-tonnage machines. most dedicated to the PET preform and thinwall. They provided a comprehensive and incorporate merchandise line for the terminal uses it served and made specialized machines. casts. hot smugglers. and automatons. As such. customization adds value to Husky’s merchandise. leting them to put a premium monetary value. While concentrating their attending on adding value to the merchandise through alone characteristics that respond to client penchant. client services during and after the sale. will increase costs. clients will be willing to pay a premium monetary value for the merchandise or service that satisfies their demands and penchants. The above three value drivers besides contributed in constructing up client trueness since Husky specifically cater to each terminal user demands. Due to complex buying procedure for the machines and cast. there is high exchanging cost incurred and therefore taking to low dickering power of the consumers. A elaborate computation demoing the apathetic monetary value of $ 2. 056. 024 between a Husky system and a competitor’s system. whereby the incremental value ( $ 1. 056. 024 ) transcending the incremental cost ( $ 200. 000 ) can be found at the terminal of the study. Current Market Situation In recent old ages. demand for Husky systems was weak in the PET part of the market and this will hold a great impact on the growing of the house since 60 % of the world’s preform was manufactured on Husky systems. The shapers of PET rosin appeared to hold underestimated resin demand by a broad border. They had added excessively small capacity. and PET monetary values had soared due to shortage of supply ( doing a displacement of the supply curve to the left and driving up monetary values of PET ) . Furthermore. the deficit of rosin led to a halted in processors enlargement programs for merchandises made with PET and put orders for new equipment on clasp. The consequence is a autumn in the demand and supply in Husky’s merchandises. therefore driving monetary values even higher. The increased in monetary value will pull more rivals to come in the market and within 2-3 old ages. market forces will force the demand and supply to market equilibrium. work outing the current issue. Analysis of Rivals Despite being portion of an oligopoly. Husky has to be invariably cognizant of its rivals in the machine and cast market. A series of challengers launched new merchandises in Husky’s nucleus market sections. Though these rivals do non hold the specialised expertness that Husky has developed. they focus on cost leading scheme by offering merchandises at a lower cost which helps them derive an advantage over clients who willing to buy less expensive engineering. For case. Cincinnati Milacron offered a wide line of standardised machines. leting it to tap economic sciences of graduated table and made them the lowest-cost U. S. manufacturer of these machines. However. consumers who are in hunt of customized machines for more specific demands would still prefer Husky. In recent old ages. the figure of close rivals who besides embarked on distinction scheme additions and they are viz. Netstal. Engel. Electra Form and R A ; D Tool A ; Engineering. These rivals set monetary values ap proximately 10-20 % below Husky. endangering the competitory advantage of Husky throughout these old ages. If Husky continues with their current scheme. the intense entry of close replacements will led to a reduced in Husky’s market portion and lower consumer’s willingness to buy their merchandise and services. Recommendations In response to both altering external and internal factors. Husky has to reexamine on their scheme to fine-tune to suit the altering environment. Although increased value creative activity is a defining characteristic of a distinction scheme. Husky should non be self-satisfied. To maintain up with the growing of demand for PET preform and close replacements in the market. an integrating scheme is recommended. First. Husky can see take downing the houses cost per unit ( production cost ) . Second. they can go on to add particular characteristics to increase sensed value. The consequence is an addition in the difference between value creative activity and cost. and therefore on the magnitude of economic value created. With Husky extremely automated. capital-intensive installations. they are able to take advantage of economic systems of graduated table as the cost per unit reduces with per addition in end product. This allows Husky to bring forth their merchandises at a lower cost and the ability to put lower monetary values compared to its rival and yet additions important economic value. The stigmatization. together with a lower monetary value will win consumers over and ensue in an addition in the demand for Husky merchandise and services. Furthermore. Husky can increase their sensed value with invention by bettering their merchandise and procedure. or alteration of bing 1s. For case. they can pass more on Research and Development to better on the public presentation of a Husky preform system by bring forthing the bottles with a shorter rhythm clip. This can hike the sensed value of the merchandise and retain consumers who are contemplating to exchange to a close replacement of Husky. Detailed Calculation of Indifferent Price Since the approximative machine monetary value is $ 1. 2million and $ 1million severally for Husky and their major rival. the incremental cost for consumer on 1 machine is $ 0. 2million. From exhibit 6. the fringy value for consumer on 1 machine is the add-on of electrical cost nest eggs. salvaging in decreased floor infinite and the extra net income generated by Husky PET preform versus Major rival. From computation based on Exhibit 6. the entire merchandises produced per twelvemonth is 135. 240. 923 and 101. 022. 102 for Husky and other Major rival severally.

youth

Tobacco Ads Target Youth Everyday 3,000 children start smoking, most them between the ages of 10 and 18. These kids account for 90 percent of all new smokers. In fact, 90 percent of all adult smokers said that they first lit up as teenagers (Roberts). These statistics clearly show that young people are the prime target in the tobacco wars. The cigarette manufacturers may deny it, but advertising and promotion play a vital part in making these facts a reality (Roberts). The kings of these media ploys are Marlboro and Camel. Marlboro uses a fictional western character called The Marlboro Man, while Camel uses Joe Camel, a high-rolling, swinging cartoon character. Joe Camel, the "smooth character" from R.J. Reynolds, who is shown as a dromedary with complete style has been attacked by many Tobacco-Free Kids organizations as a major influence on the children of America. Dr. Lonnie Bristow, AMA (American Medical Association) spokesman, remarks that "to kids, cute cartoon characters mean that the product is harmless, but cigarettes are not harmless. They have to know that their ads are influencing the youth under 18 to begin smoking"(Breo). Researchers at the Medical College of Georgia report that almost as many 6-year olds recognize Joe Camel as know Mickey Mouse (Breo). That is very shocking information for any parent to hear. The industry denies that these symbols target people under 21 and claim that their advertising goal is simply to promote brand switching and loyalty. Many people disagree with this statement such as Illinois Rep. Richard Durbin who states " If we can reduce the number of young smokers, the tobacco companies will be in trouble and they know it "(Roberts). So what do the tobacco companies do to keep their industry alive and well? Seemingly, they go toward a market that is not fully aware of the harm that cigarettes are capable of. U.S. News recently featured ... youth Free Essays on Tobacco/youth Tobacco Ads Target Youth Everyday 3,000 children start smoking, most them between the ages of 10 and 18. These kids account for 90 percent of all new smokers. In fact, 90 percent of all adult smokers said that they first lit up as teenagers (Roberts). These statistics clearly show that young people are the prime target in the tobacco wars. The cigarette manufacturers may deny it, but advertising and promotion play a vital part in making these facts a reality (Roberts). The kings of these media ploys are Marlboro and Camel. Marlboro uses a fictional western character called The Marlboro Man, while Camel uses Joe Camel, a high-rolling, swinging cartoon character. Joe Camel, the "smooth character" from R.J. Reynolds, who is shown as a dromedary with complete style has been attacked by many Tobacco-Free Kids organizations as a major influence on the children of America. Dr. Lonnie Bristow, AMA (American Medical Association) spokesman, remarks that "to kids, cute cartoon characters mean that the product is harmless, but cigarettes are not harmless. They have to know that their ads are influencing the youth under 18 to begin smoking"(Breo). Researchers at the Medical College of Georgia report that almost as many 6-year olds recognize Joe Camel as know Mickey Mouse (Breo). That is very shocking information for any parent to hear. The industry denies that these symbols target people under 21 and claim that their advertising goal is simply to promote brand switching and loyalty. Many people disagree with this statement such as Illinois Rep. Richard Durbin who states " If we can reduce the number of young smokers, the tobacco companies will be in trouble and they know it "(Roberts). So what do the tobacco companies do to keep their industry alive and well? Seemingly, they go toward a market that is not fully aware of the harm that cigarettes are capable of. U.S. News recently featured ...

At Risk Students- Students at risk of school failure with an emphasis Research Paper

At Risk Students- Students at risk of school failure with an emphasis on students placed in foster care - Research Paper Example Such problems necessitate the removal of a child from their home for the purposes of their emotional and physical safety. At any given time, approximately 10,000 children are under foster care, 35% being in the care of their relatives. . How students in foster care become at risk students There are many factors that contribute to students placed in foster care becoming at risk students. These include the frequent school moves which result to disruption of their educational progress. This is mainly because such children are normally forced to leave their communities and schools on entering into foster care due to limited residential resources within the present district of the child. Such transfers force these children to join other students in their new schools despite the disparity in syllabus coverage between the two schools. According to Riley (1986), the impact of school transfers is great because most of such transfers take place mid of the school year and the mobility rates are higher for those entering into foster care for the first time. By the time some of these students go through the curriculum, they could have change schools up to five times. According to a 1996 study done in Chicago Public Schools, students who had changed schools for about four or more times had lost about a year of educational growth by their 6th year. If such student’s do not receive enough attention to orient them to the new school and remedial services to catch up with the rest, they end up lagging behind the rest all the academic years (Pecora et al, 2003). Some of the students under foster care attend to medical appointments or court cases. Such activities usually take the student out of school and could even result to emotional upheaval (Pecora et al, 2003). This means that the student will always have class work or content gaps due to frequent unavoidable absenteeism. This makes these students become at risk students because they may never cope successfully with the rest of the class leading to a general low performance. This causes the student to loose self-confidence leading to a continuation of the trend. Green (1986) notes that students placed under foster care have higher rates of inappropriate behavior like truancy, drug addiction or impulsive behavior. This could be due to lack of proper and continuous monitoring because social workers and care givers may change several times during the stay of a child in foster care. This makes their margin of suspended and/or expelled students wider compared to that of students who are not out of home. A combination of such suspensions and/or expulsions, and inappropriate behavior results to high school failure and drop out rates among them students placed under foster care. Help and support to at risk students At risk students need a lot of help and support from parents, teachers and counselors in order to enhance their educational levels and achievements. As noted earlier, these students experience more failure than the rest of the class and hence they fall behind their peers. This causes them to have low self-esteem which negatively affects their attitude towards education and to underestimate their potentialities. Beveridge (2010) states that the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), supports educational reforms that are standards-based. This is based on a belief that establishment of goals and setting of high standards can improve the educational outcomes

Accounting decision making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Accounting decision making - Essay Example In addition, an explanation to support the variation in the contribution margin of the five services is provided and possible resource constraints faced by the firm is provided. Firms adopt different dividend policies which are in line with their goals. Dividend payment is preferred by shareholders since that is their source of reward for contributing equity capital. The article states that dividend payment is simply a transfer of value within the firm. That is, the movement of value already owned by the shareholders to shareholders. Therefore, there is no level of dividend payment that contributes to value creation. The statement is true for the reason that dividend payment does not increase the firm’s ability to increase the economic benefits. In other words, a firm cannot increase its cash flow generating ability by paying dividends. However, the payment of cash dividends has a positive impact on the value of a firm (market value). The market value of a firm (market capitalization) is determined by multiplying the outstanding shares of a firm with the current share price. It has been observed that the payment of cash dividends by firms increases the market value of companies. The increase is brought about as follows: when a firm pays cash dividends, more shareholders, who prefer certain payments, are attracted (Frankfurter, Wood & Wansley, 2003, pp. 91). The demand of shares of that company increases, thus increasing the share price. Consequently, the market value of the firm increases. There are two theories of dividend payment which supports the influence of cash dividend on the market value of the firm. That is, the bird-in-hand theory and information signalling dividend payment theory (Hunting & Paulsen 2013). The bird-in-hand, dividend payment theory states that stockholders prefer certainty due to their aversion towards risk. Dividend payments are more assured as compared

Islamic Politics and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Islamic Politics and Culture - Essay Example From the Sunnis point of view, the immediate caliphs (four in number), were the rightful heirs of Mohammad and they are the one recognized as the leaders of Muslims (Lyon 86). This therefore implies that the Sunnis believed that authority is dictated from the immediate descendants of Prophet Mohammad. Shiites, on the other hand, believe that Prophet Mohammad’s son in law, Ali, was the rightful heir of the Islamic throne ((Lyon 86)). This therefore implies that Shia only recognized Ali as the legitimate successors of Prophet Mohammed. Therefore, even though both of these sects believed in Mohammad as their initial leader, upon his death, there arose differences on who was rightfully supposed to inherit his throne. Mostly, stand out differences between these two sects is not usually religious but political. According to Sigh, Shiites believed that their leader was pure and blameless by nature, they believed that they were absolutely sinless and that their authority is out of question since it is given directly from Allah (26). Therefore, Shia Muslims often look at the Imams as saints and perform excursions to their tombs and shrines in the anticipation of divine intervention. Sunni Muslims on the other hand pledge that there is no foundation in Islam for a heritable advantaged class of spiritual leaders, and there is certainly no base for the honor or intercession of saints. Sunni Muslims maintain that the headship of the community is not a patrimony, but an earned trust that could be assigned or taken away by the Islamic people. Equally important, the Islamic religion entitles both the Sunni and Shiite are to a daily organized prayers at a specific time. However, these two sects usually practice certain rituals in different ways. Sacred practices also vary in terms of the scriptures that are conventional to them. While Shiites generally only recognize hadith attributable to Muhammads direct lineage or to descendants of Ali, Sunni on the contrary take a

Theories on Discourse and Changes in Ideology

Theories on Discourse and Changes in Ideology Language, that makes us the Crown of Creatures, empowers us with an expressive medium which we exploit to communicate, understand, interpret, negate, acknowledge, appreciate, influence, persuade, dominate, control, etc. Metaphorically speaking, language helps us to caress and comfort our feelings, excite and thrill our spirit, rattle our nerves, kill our desire, and so on. Language is a variegated phenomenon. It can emotionally move and affect us as powerfully as physical actions. This is the power of language. 1.1 What is Discourse? The term discourse has been derived from French word discours meaning talk. In linguistics, discourse is a sequence of utterances. Grammarians define discourse as large pieces of speech and writing: stretches of language longer than a sentence. Language is used to mean something and to do something, and this meaning and doing is determined by the context of its usage. As discourse is dialogic in nature, the things which make it different from ordinary language use are context, creation, reception and interpretation. It should not be confused with either of the Chomskys or Saussures categories. It is neither performance or parole which is concerned with language in its actual utterances, nor competence or languewhere language is a code system and a system of communicative conventions. Although it contains both the elements, it goes beyond the distinction of performance or parole and competence or langue; it is the study of language use. If language is speech act and social behavior, discourse is a form of social practice. Foucault defines discourse as ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such knowledges and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and producing meaning. They constitute the nature of the body, unconscious and conscious mind and emotional life of the subjects they seek to govern. (Weedon, 1987) a form of power that circulates in the social field and can attach to strategies of domination as well as those of resistance. (Diamond Quinby, 1988) In other words, discourse is a string of utterances concerned with the production of meaning. Discourse is a socially organized way of speaking. According to Foucault, discourse constructs the topic. It governs what can and cannot be said about the topic. Apart from governing the topic, it is also used to influence people to change ideas into practice (be it personal or others ideas), and to regulate the conduct of others. As discourse is concerned with the production of meaning, the utterances have a relation to common sense assumptions. Cultural hegemony is maintained through common sense assumptions which become universal ideologies through language or in other words discourse. Language exerts hidden power, like a moon on the tides. (Rita Mae Brown, Starting from Scratch, 1998) 1.2 What is Ideology? Ideologies are those ideas, values, attitudes, and (general or cultural) ways of thinking that shape our belief systems and mind sets about what is /isnt correct, and how it must be. Ideologies, be they religious or political or social, maintain power structures and social hierarchies and remain dominant and prevalent in the society through rhetorical discourse or hidden power in discourse. The main purpose of ideology is not only to change the existing structures, but also to maintain already existing set of ideals. Ideas, beliefs, and attitudes which maintain status quo become dominant or prevalent ideologies of the society. These ideologies are so powerful that they ignore and sideline those ideas which are against its very existence through a normative thought process and politics of the language. Ideologies when become shared experiences start making sense. People start making sense of their lives while observing them. In other words, they are no more false beliefs and ideas, rather a true and lived experience. THEORIES ON DISCOURSE IDEOLOGY The social theory has contributed in many ways to explore the role of language in exercising, maintaining and changing power. Firstly, the work in the theory of ideology talks about ideology as a mechanism of power without using coercive means and language as a locus of ideology which is significant in exercising power. Secondly, Michel Foucaults work ascribes central role to discourse in the development of power structures of forms. Thirdly, Jurgen Habermas theory of communicative action which challenges Marxist focus on economics or alienated labor- is considered as the sole determining factor of oppression. He argues that key to liberation is rather to be found in language and communication between people. 2.1 Marx and Ideology Karl Max, a social thinker of 19th century, talked of ideology in terms of an instrument of social production. He gave economic base and superstructure model of society, where base denotes the relation of production and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology. Base shapes the superstructure of any society, while the superstructure maintains and legitimates the base. According to Marx, bourgeoisie create and reinforce particular ways of thinking, in other words, particular ideology which in turn reinforce the structure of the society, thus maintaining status quo and existing hierarchies of status and power. Fig. 1: Marxs Base Superstructure Model of Society According to Karl Marx, social ideologies not only cause status quo or hegemony in the society, but also a conditioning where false consciousness created by the ruling class is justified. This conditioning makes us think that the way our society operates is for the best, and lower class justifies its own lower position in society. Michel Foucault in The Order of Discourse In The Order of Discourse, Foucault argues that the discourse is controlled by certain functions, actions and rules. In particular, certain topics are prohibited and who speaks is limited. Reason is valued and madness is ignored. It is also controlled by what we choose to comment on and by the will to truth. [T]he highest truth no longer resided in what discourse was or did, but in what is said: a day came when truth was displaced by from the ritualized, efficacious, and just act of enunciation, towards the utterance itself, its meaning, its form, its object, its relation to its reference. (1462) In every society, the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its chance events, to evade its ponderous, formidable materiality (p.210). Foucault also talks about procedures of exclusion and procedures of inclusion. He states that prohibition of including or discussing certain topics very soon reveal [discourses] link with desire and with power (p.211). At another place he says that discourse is not simply that which translates struggles or systems of domination, but is the thing for which and by which there is struggle; discourse is the power which is to be seized (p.211). In Weedons (1987) in interpretation of Foucault is: A dynamic of control between discourses and the subjects, constituted by discourses, who are their agents. Power is exercised within discourses in the ways in which they constitute and govern individual subjects. Foucaults focus is upon questions of how some discourses have shaped and created meaning systems that have gained the status and currency of truth, and dominate how we define and organize both ourselves and our social world, whilst other alternative discourses are marginalised and subjugated, yet potentially offer sites where hegemonic practices can be contested, challenged and resisted. Foucault developed the concept of the discursive field as part of his attempt to understand the relationship between language, social institutions, subjectivity and power. Discursive fields, such as the law or the family, contain a number of competing and contradictory discourses with varying degrees of power to give meaning to and organize social institutions and processes. They also offer a range of modes of subjectivity (Weedon, 1987). It follows then that, if relations of power are dispersed and fragmented throughout the social field, so must resistance to power be (Diamond Quinby, 1988). Foucault argues though, in The Order of Discourse, that the will to truth is the major system of exclusion that forges discourse and which tends to exert a sort of pressure and something like a power of constraint on other discourses, and goes on further to ask the question what is at stake in the will to truth, in the will to utter this true discourse, if not desire and power? (1970, cited in Shapiro 1984, p. 113-4). Thus, there are both discourses that constrain the production of knowledge, dissent and difference and some that enable new knowledges and difference(s). The questions that arise within this framework, are to do with how some discourses maintain their authority, how some voices get heard whilst others are silenced, who benefits and how that is, questions addressing issues of power/ empowerment/ disempowerment. 2.3 Louis Althussers view of Ideology Louis Althusser builds on the work of Jacques Lacan to understand the way ideology functions in society. He thus moves away from the earlier Marxist understanding of ideology. In the earlier model, ideology was believed to create what was termed false consciousness, a false understanding of the way the world functioned (for example, the suppression of the fact that the products we purchase on the open market are, in fact, the result of the exploitation of laborers). Althusser revised Marxs view of ideology, which he described as: thought as an imaginary construction whose status is exactly like the theoretical status of the dream among writers before Freud. He saw human individuals being constituted as subjects through ideology. Consciousness and agency are experienced, but are the products of ideology speaking through the subject. Above all, ideology is an imaginary construction that represents the real world. However, it is so real to us that we never question it. Althusser posits a series of hypotheses that he explores to clarify his understanding of ideology: Ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence (Lenin 109). The traditional way of thinking of ideology led Marxists to show how ideologies are false by pointing to the real world hidden by ideology (for example, the real economic base for ideology). According to Althusser, by contrast, ideology does not reflect the real world but represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to the real world; the thing ideology (mis)represents is itself already at one remove from the real. In this, Althusser follows the Lacanian understanding of the imaginary order, which is itself at one step removed from the Lacanian Real. In other words, we are always within ideology because of our reliance on language to establish our reality; different ideologies are but different representations of our social and imaginary reality not a representation of the Real itself. Ideology has a material existence (Lenin 112). Althusser contends that ideology has a material existence because an ideology always exists in an apparatus, and its practice, or practices (Lenin 112). Ideology always manifests itself through actions, which are inserted into practices (Lenin 114), for example, rituals, conventional behavior, and so on. It is our performance of our relation to others and to social institutions that continually instantiates us as subjects. Judith Butlers understanding of performativity could be said to be strongly influenced by this way of thinking about ideology. all ideology hails or interpellates concrete individuals as concrete subjects (Lenin 115). According to Althusser, the main purpose of ideology is in constituting concrete individuals as subjects (Lenin 116). So pervasive is ideology in its constitution of subjects that it forms our very reality and thus appears to us as true or obvious. Althusser gives the example of the hello on a street: the rituals of ideological recognition [] guarantee for us that we are indeed concrete, individual, distinguishable and (naturally) irreplaceable subjects (Lenin 117). Through interpellation, individuals are turned into subjects (which are always ideological). Althussers example is the hail from a police officer: Hey, you there!' (Lenin 118): Assuming that the theoretical scene I have imagined takes place in the street, the hailed individual will turn round. By this mere one-hundred-and-eighty-degree physical conversion, he becomes a subject (Lenin 118). The very fact that we do not recognize this interaction as ideological speaks to the power of ideology: what thus seems to take place outside ideology (to be precise, in the street), in reality takes place in ideology [.] That is why those who are in ideology believe themselves by definition outside ideology: one of the effects of ideology is the practical denegation of the ideological character of ideology by ideology: ideology never says, I am ideological. (Lenin 118) individuals are always-already subjects (Lenin 119). Although he presents his example of interpellation in a temporal form (I am interpellated and thus I become a subject, I enter ideology), Althusser makes it clear that the becoming-subject happens even before we are born. This proposition might seem paradoxical (Lenin 119), Althusser admits; nevertheless, That an individual is always-already a subject, even before he is born, is [] the plain reality, accessible to everyone and not a paradox at all (Lenin 119). Even before the child is born, it is certain in advance that it will bear its Fathers Name, and will therefore have an identity and be irreplaceable. Before its birth, the child is therefore always-already a subject, appointed as a subject in and by the specific familial ideological configuration in which it is expected once it has been conceived (Lenin119). Althusser thus once again invokes Lacans ideas, in this case Lacans understanding of the Name-of-the-Father. Most subjects accept their ideological self-constitution as reality or nature and thus rarely run afoul of the repressive State apparatus, which is designed to punish anyone who rejects the dominant ideology. Hegemony is thus reliant less on such repressive State apparatuses as the police than it is on those Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) by which ideology is inculcated in all subjects. (See the next module for an explanation of ISAs.) As Althusser puts it, the individual is interpellated as a (free) subject in order that he shall submit freely to the commandments of the Subject, i.e. in order that he shall (freely) accept his subjection, i.e. in order that he shall make the gestures and actions of his subjection all by himself' (Lenin 123). Louis Althussers ISA Althusser proposed a materialistic conception of ideology, which made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are true. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told (but is suggested). For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. What is ultimately important for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the minds of human individuals, but rather the material institutions, rituals and discourses that produce these beliefs. Althusser identified the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) as the method by which organizations propagate ideology primarily. Violence or threat of violence is secondary. ISAs for Althusser were religious, educational, family, cultural institutions. This is in contrast to the Repressive State Apparatus (RSA), by which compliance can be forced and includes the army, police, government, prisons. Force or threat of force is primary, while ideology is secondary. For example, arrest imprisonment, corporal punishment, etc. 2.4 Discourse as Social Practice Social relations of power and domination are sustained through ideology. To Fairclough, ideologies construct realities which give meaning to discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Hence the discursive practices, loaded with ideologies not only produce, but also reproduce or transform social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief. 2.4.1 Fairclough and Ideology: There are two ways of exercising power: through coercion and through consent. According to Fairclough, Ideology is the key mechanism of rule by consent, and discourse is a favored vehicle of ideology. It functions to establish, sustain or change domination or power relations in the society. For Fairclough, ideologies are constructions of reality which are built into various dimensions of the forms and meanings of discursive practices. Through power relations implicit in orders of discourse, discourse becomes invested ideologically. Through being ideologically invested, discourse is a mode of producing, reproducing or transforming social identities, social relations, and systems of knowledge and belief. Fairclough (1992) makes three claims about ideology, based in part on the French Marxist philosopher, Althusser: Ideology has a material basis in the social practices of institutions. As a form of social practice, discourse practices are material forms of ideology. Ideology interpellates subjects. It works by constituting people as subjects within the framework of ideology. Patriarchal ideology interpellates individuals as more powerful men or less powerful women. Racist ideology interpellates groups as ourselves and the Other (see Hall 1997 The Spectacle of the Other). Ideology operates through powerful ideological state apparatuses. Althusser contrasts what he terms the repressive agencies of the police, the military, prisons and the courts, with the ideological state apparatuses of the mass media, education and popular culture. In Faircloughs theory, all of these give rise to institutional and societal orders of discourse (the societal order of discourse is a condensation of the institutional orders of discourse). 2.4.2 Fairclough and Discourse Discourse involves two kinds of social conditions: social conditions of production and social conditions of interpretation. These social conditions are naturalized through the ideological functioning of the practices of dominant class. Fairclough describes underlying conventions of discourse which in fact determines discourse in terms of what Foucault refers to as orders of discourse. To Fairclough, these orders of discourse embody particular ideologies. Fairclough refers to the three dimensions of discourse. They are discursive practice (discourse practice), social practice (socio-cultural practice), and text. Social practice includes discourse which not only reflects reality, but also effect social structures which play active role in social change. Different subject positions determine different discoursal rights and obligations of individuals. Discourse practice refers to the production and reception of messages. Participants indulged in discourse construct their social identities and relations by knowing how to act in certain situations. For this participants draw on what Fairclough refers to as members resources (MR). This include internalized knowledge of social structure and social practices; knowledge about production and interpretation of discourse types; and detailed knowledge of particular linguistics and textual structuring devices. Text is the record of a communicative event. It can be written, spoken or visual. While analyzing text in terms of ideologies embedded in it, two things are very important: firstly, representation of ideological facts and beliefs and construction of participant identities (writer and reader), and secondly, textual function which frames the message. 3.How Ideologies are Embedded in Language Language produces, maintains and changes social relations of power. It also contributes to the domination of some people by others. Power is exercised through language in conversations and other forms of text or talk. When people interact linguistically, the conventional talk embodies common sense assumptions where power structures are treated as legitimized. According to Fairclough, these assumptions are ideologies which are closely linked to power and language. Power relations determine the conventional ideological assumptions, which in turn legitimize existing social relations and unequal power. Language, a social behavior, relies on common sense assumptions. The exercise of power in modern society is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through the ideological working of the language. (Fairclough, 1989) Further he says, Ideology is the prime means of manufacturing consent. 3.1 Memory Resources Ideological assumptions are mere common sense assumptions, and contribute to sustain existing power relations. To Fairclough, these common sense assumptions are memory resources (MR). when sender encodes a message, the receiver not only decodes it, but also interpret it by comparing and contrasting features of utterances with representations stored in long term memory. Fairclough refers to these prototypes as member resources: grammatical forms, structures, shapes of words, sequence of events, systems of meaning, sounds, etc. Interaction between interpreted utterance and MR results in comprehension. According to Fairclough, understanding how language, power, and ideology are interrelated requires attention to the processes of production and comprehension because MR/ representations/ prototypes are socially determined and ideologically shaped. They are so automatic, natural, legitimate and common sense assumptions that they remain in disguise. The sociologist Harold Garfinkel, describes the familiar common sense world of everyday life as a world which is built entirely upon assumptions and expectations which control both the action of members of society and their interpretation of the action of others. Such assumptions and expectations are implicit, back grounded, taken for granted, not things that people are consciously aware of and rarely explicit. Effectiveness of ideology depends to a considerable degree on it being merged with this common sense background to discourse and other forms of social action. 3.2 Language Ideologies in Text Language ideologies are not just ways of explaining language and language use for economic reasons, but are the language ideas of the dominant groups in society. They may equally be inter-changed with discourses about language. Ideologies are not untrue indeed, like stereotypes, there may be a degree of truth in them. Ideology is to study its effects on discourse forms and meanings and how discursive structures may in turn contribute to the formation and transformation of ideologies. However, ideologies are also at play when language users engage in the ongoing construction of context as subjective, as well as group sensitive, interpretations of social situations. While talking about ideologies embedded in text, we can say that this genre of discourse is a level of language use which is super-ordinate to sentences and texts. Text is not something having a beginning and an end. It involves exchange of meanings. Text are created by speakers and writers who share societys beliefs concerning what is right and what is wrong or about the way things should be for the best in society. When they want to maintain their belief systems or ideologies, they take the help of language. These ideologies remain implicit in the text as they seem natural or common sense. The ideologically loaded language of the text grants it the ideological power. Such langue has judgmental value and meaning as well. Many ideologically loaded words have their judgemental value because their meaning is rational. They exist as binary pairs: master/mistress, housewife/working mother, middle class/working class, freedom fighter/terrorist, hero/coward, etc. Some linguists maintain th at all language all meaning is an ideological construct. Following are few texts which are all related to social problems for one and social beliefs for the other. In other words, they contain social ideologies which are neutralized in the society. CONCLUSION Long-range social changes are driven by changes in ideology. But at a local level, change in actual discourse practices can be cumulative in effect. Both discourse and ideology are based on the relationship between power and knowledge. We tend to think of knowledge as empowering ourselves (Sarup, 1993). Besides this, knowledge is the ability to exercise power over others. So, power is both positive (productive in creating identities), and negative (destroy identities). In productive power, one is not reduced to one dimension as in ideologies and power is not held by one person or group for good. Rather, it exists as a circuit, something which is exercised by everyone in different situations. As where there is power there is always resistance, power can be challenged. We might not say certain things in certain situations, but by breaking the rules, we can re-define the limits of discourse. Hence, redefining the limits of discourse is something productive about power.